3 @string{DAbramavicius = "Abramavicius, Darius"}
4 @string{SRKAinavarapu = "Ainavarapu, Sri Rama Koti"}
5 @string{MDAllen = "Allen, Mark D."}
6 @string{AJP = "American Journal of Physics"}
7 @string{APS = "American Physical Society"}
8 @string{IAndricioaei = "Andricioaei, Ioan"}
9 @string{DAnselmetti = "Anselmetti, D."}
10 @string{AMC = "Applied Mathematics and Computation"}
11 @string{SArcidiacono = "Arcidiacono, S."}
12 @string{CRArciola = "Arciola, Carla Renata"}
13 @string{WABaase = "Baase, Walter A."}
14 @string{CLBadilla = "Badilla, Carmen L."}
15 @string{MMBalamurali = "Balamurali, M. M."}
16 @string{MBalsera = "Balsera, M."}
17 @string{GBaneyx = "Baneyx, Gretchen"}
18 @string{RBar-Ziv = "Bar-Ziv, Roy"}
19 @string{DBarrick = "Barrick, Doug"}
20 @string{FWBartels = "Bartels, F. W."}
21 @string{BBarz = "Barz, Bogdan"}
22 @string{TBasche = "Basche, Th."}
23 @string{LBaugh = "Baugh, Loren"}
24 @string{JBechhoefer = "Bechhoefer, John"}
25 @string{GSBeddard = "Beddard, Godfrey S."}
26 @string{GIBell = "Bell, G. I."}
27 @string{VBenes = "Benes, Vladimir"}
28 @string{FBerkemeier = "Berkemeier, Felix"}
29 @string{BJBerne = "Berne, Bruce J."}
30 @string{MBertz = "Bertz, Morten"}
31 @string{RBBest = "Best, Robert B."}
32 @string{NBhasin = "Bhasin, Nishant"}
33 @string{KSBillings = "Billings, Kate S."}
34 @string{Biochemistry = "Biochemistry"}
35 @string{BiophysJ = "Biophys J"}
36 @string{BPS:P = "Biophysical Society Annual Meeting (Poster)"}
37 @string{JABirchler = "Birchler, James A."}
38 @string{AWBlake = "Blake, Anthony W."}
39 @string{MBooth = "Booth, Michael"}
40 @string{MBorkovec = "Borkovec, Michal"}
41 @string{EBraverman = "Braverman, Elena"}
42 @string{WABreyer = "Breyer, Wendy A."}
43 @string{pub-NETWORK-THEORY:adr = "Bristol, UK"}
44 @string{DJBrockwell = "Brockwell, David J."}
45 @string{SEBroedel = "Broedel, Sheldon E."}
46 @string{BDBrower-Toland = "Brower-Toland, Brent D."}
47 @string{VBrumfeld = "Brumfeld, Vlad"}
48 @string{JDBryngelson = "Bryngelson, J. D."}
49 @string{BBullard = "Bullard, Belinda"}
50 @string{CBustamante = "Bustamante, Carlos"}
51 @string{YBustanji = "Bustanji, Yasser"}
52 @string{CUP = "Cambridge University Press"}
53 @string{IDCampbell = "Campbell, Iain D."}
54 @string{YCao = "Cao, Yi"}
55 @string{PCarl = "Carl, Philippe"}
56 @string{BACarnes = "Carnes, B. A."}
57 @string{MCarrion-Vazquez = "Carrion-Vazquez, Mariano"}
58 @string{CCecconi = "Cecconi, Ciro"}
59 @string{ERChapman = "Chapman, Edwin R."}
60 @string{Chemphyschem = "Chemphyschem"}
61 @string{JChoy = "Choy, Jason"}
62 @string{JClarke = "Clarke, Jane"}
63 @string{JClarkson = "Clarkson, John"}
64 @string{MConti = "Conti, Matteo"}
65 @string{GCowan = "Cowan, Glen"}
66 @string{DCraig = "Craig, David"}
67 @string{FWDahlquist = "Dahlquist, Frederick W."}
68 @string{JDavies = "Davies, Jim"}
69 @string{WFDeGrado = "DeGrado, William F."}
70 @string{Demography = "Demography"}
71 @string{HDietz = "Dietz, Hendrik"}
72 @string{RIDima = "Dima, Ruxandra I."}
73 @string{DEDischer = "Discher, Dennis E."}
74 @string{LDougan = "Dougan, Lorna"}
75 @string{OKDudko = "Dudko, Olga K."}
76 @string{EMBORep = "EMBO Rep"}
77 @string{REckel = "Eckel, R."}
78 @string{MElbaum = "Elbaum, Michael"}
79 @string{E:NHPL = "Elsevier, North-Holland Personal Library"}
80 @string{TEndo = "Endo, Toshiya"}
81 @string{HPErickson = "Erickson, Harold P."}
82 @string{MEsaki = "Esaki, Masatoshi"}
83 @string{EEvans = "Evans, E."}
84 @string{MEvstigneev = "Evstigneev, M."}
85 @string{JMFernandez = "Fernandez, Julio M."}
86 @string{AEFilippov = "Filippov, A. E."}
87 @string{BFlannery = "Flannery, B."}
88 @string{FoldDes = "Fold Des"}
89 @string{SAFossey = "Fossey, S. A."}
90 @string{SBFowler = "Fowler, Susan B."}
91 @string{HFujita = "Fujita, Hideaki"}
92 @string{TFunck = "Funck, Theodor"}
93 @string{MGalassi = "Galassi, Mark"}
94 @string{MGao = "Gao, Mu"}
95 @string{TGarcia = "Garcia, Tzintzuni"}
96 @string{HEGaub = "Gaub, Hermann E."}
97 @string{MGautel = "Gautel, Mathias"}
98 @string{LAGavrilov = "Gavrilov, L. A."}
99 @string{NSGavrilova = "Gavrilova, N. S."}
100 @string{CGergely = "Gergely, C."}
101 @string{JGlaser = "Glaser, Jens"}
102 @string{BGompertz = "Gompertz, Benjamin"}
103 @string{BGough = "Gough, Brian"}
104 @string{HLGranzier = "Granzier, Henk L."}
105 @string{FGrater = "Grater, Frauke"}
106 @string{CGrossman = "Grossman, C."}
107 @string{HGrubmuller = {Grubm{\"u}ller, Helmut}}
108 @string{HJGuntherodt = "Guntherodt, Hans-Joachim"}
109 @string{PHanggi = {H\"anggi, Peter}}
110 @string{JAHaack = "Haack, Julie A."}
111 @string{RJHajjar = "Hajjar, Roger J."}
112 @string{FHan = "Han, Fangpu"}
113 @string{HGHansma = "Hansma, H. G."}
114 @string{PKHansma = "Hansma, Paul K."}
115 @string{JWHatfield = "Hatfield, John William"}
116 @string{JHemmerle = "Hemmerle, J."}
117 @string{BHeymann = "Heymann, B."}
118 @string{HHinssen = "Hinssen, Horst"}
119 @string{PHinterdorfer = "Hinterdorfer, Peter"}
120 @string{RMHochstrasser = "Hochstrasser, Robin M."}
121 @string{WDHoff = "Hoff, Wouter D."}
122 @string{JKHHorber = "Horber, J. K. H."}
123 @string{CKHu = "Hu, Chin-Kun"}
124 @string{HHHuang = "Huang, Hector H."}
125 @string{FHugosson = "Hugosson, Fredrik"}
126 @string{GHummer = "Hummer, Gerhard"}
127 @string{WLHung = "Hung, Wen-Liang"}
128 @string{JLHutter = "Hutter, Jeffrey L."}
129 @string{CHyeon = "Hyeon, Changbong"}
130 @string{IJBMM = "International Journal of Biological Macromolecules"}
131 @string{AIrback = "Irback, Anders"}
132 @string{SIzrailev = "Izrailev, S."}
133 @string{JBiotechnol = "J Biotechnol"}
134 @string{JMathBiol = "J Math Biol"}
135 @string{JTheorBiol = "J Theor Biol"}
136 @string{JChemPhys = "J. Chem. Phys."}
137 @string{LJanosi = "Janosi, Lorant"}
138 @string{JJAP = "Japanese Journal of Applied Physics"}
139 @string{YJia = "Jia, Yiwei"}
140 @string{SJiang = "Jiang, Shaoyi"}
141 @string{CPJohnson = "Johnson, Colin P."}
142 @string{AJollymore = "Jollymore, Ashlee"}
143 @string{EJones = "Jones, Eric"}
144 @string{JMB = "Journal of Molecular Biology"}
145 @string{DAJuckett = "Juckett, D. A."}
146 @string{GJungman = "Jungman, Gerard"}
147 @string{DKaftan = "Kaftan, David"}
148 @string{RKapon = "Kapon, Ruti"}
149 @string{AKardinal = "Kardinal, Angelika"}
150 @string{MKarplus = "Karplus, Martin"}
151 @string{MSZKellermayer = "Kellermayer, Mikl\'os S. Z."}
152 @string{FKienberger = "Kienberger, Ferry"}
153 @string{WTKing = "King, W. Trevor"}
154 @string{JKlafter = "Klafter, J."}
155 @string{AKleiner = "Kleiner, Ariel"}
156 @string{DKKlimov = "Klimov, Dmitri K."}
157 @string{IKosztin = "Kosztin, Ioan"}
158 @string{HAKramers = "Kramers, H.A."}
159 @string{AKrammer = "Krammer, Andre"}
160 @string{KKroy = "Kroy, Klaus"}
161 @string{MKulke = "Kulke, Michael"}
162 @string{CHKwok = "Kwok, Carol H."}
163 @string{DLabeit = "Labeit, Dietmar"}
164 @string{SLabeit = "Labeit, Siegfried"}
165 @string{SLahmers = "Lahmers, Sunshine"}
166 @string{CLam = "Lam, Canaan"}
167 @string{JCLamb = "Lamb, Jonathan C."}
168 @string{LANG = "Langmuir"}
169 @string{WLLau = "Lau, Wai Leung"}
170 @string{MCLeake = "Leake, Mark C."}
171 @string{HLee = "Lee, Haeshin"}
172 @string{SLee = "Lee, Sunyoung"}
173 @string{RLemmen = "Lemmen, Robert"}
174 @string{OLequin = "Lequin, Olivier"}
175 @string{CLethias = "Lethias, Claire"}
176 @string{HLi = "Li, Hongbin"}
177 @string{MSLi = "Li, Mai Suan"}
178 @string{FCLin = "Lin, Fan-Chi"}
179 @string{WALinke = "Linke, Wolfgang A."}
180 @string{JTLis = "Lis, John T."}
181 @string{WLiu = "Liu, W."}
182 @string{HLu = "Lu, Hui"}
183 @string{ZLuthey-Schulten = "Luthey-Schulten, Z."}
184 @string{MMaaloum = "Maaloum, M."}
185 @string{Macromolecules = "Macromolecules"}
186 @string{SMajid = "Majid, Sophia"}
187 @string{DEMakarov = "Makarov, Dmitrii E."}
188 @string{AMalec = "Malec, Arien"}
189 @string{RMamdani = "Mamdani, Reneeta"}
190 @string{EMandello = "Mandello, Enrico"}
191 @string{GManderson = "Manderson, Gavin"}
192 @string{JFMarko = "Marko, John F."}
193 @string{PEMarszalek = "Marszalek, Piotr E."}
194 @string{JMathe = "Math{\'e}, J{\'e}r{\^o}me"}
195 @string{AMatouschek = "Matouschek, Andreas"}
196 @string{BWMatthews = "Matthews, Brian W."}
197 @string{McGraw-Hill = "McGraw-Hill"}
198 @string{MechAgeingDev = "Mech Ageing Dev"}
199 @string{AMeller = "Meller, Amit"}
200 @string{CCMello = "Mello, Cecilia C."}
201 @string{RMerkel = "Merkel, R."}
202 @string{HMetiu = "Metiu, Horia"}
203 @string{MMickler = "Mickler, Moritz"}
204 @string{SMitternacht = "Mitternacht, Simon"}
205 @string{SMohanty = "Mohanty, Sandipan"}
206 @string{UMohideen = "Mohideen, U."}
207 @string{VMontana = "Montana, Vedrana"}
208 @string{LMontanaro = "Montanaro, Lucio"}
209 @string{SMukamel = "Mukamel, Shaul"}
210 @string{NAT = "Nature"}
211 @string{NSB = "Nat Struct Biol"}
212 @string{NSMB = "Nat Struct Mol Biol"}
213 @string{CNeagoe = "Neagoe, Ciprian"}
214 @string{NetworkTheoryLtd = "Network Theory Ltd."}
215 @string{RNevo = "Nevo, Reinat"}
216 @string{NJP = "New Journal of Physics"}
217 @string{SPNg = "Ng, Sean P."}
218 @string{MNguyen-Duong = "Nguyen-Duong, M."}
219 @string{SNie = "Nie, S."}
220 @string{AANoegel = "Noegel, Angelika A."}
221 @string{RANome = "Nome, Rene A."}
222 @string{JNummela = "Nummela, Jeremiah"}
223 @string{AFOberhauser = "Oberhauser, Andres F."}
224 @string{FOesterhelt = "Oesterhelt, Filipp"}
225 @string{TOhashi = "Ohashi, Tomoo"}
226 @string{TOliphant = "Oliphant, Travis"}
227 @string{PDOlmsted = "Olmsted, Peter D."}
228 @string{SJOlshansky = "Olshansky, S. J."}
229 @string{JNOnuchic = "Onuchic, J. N."}
230 @string{YOono = "Oono, Y."}
231 @string{CAOpitz = "Opitz, Christiane A."}
232 @string{KOroszlan = "Oroszlan, Krisztina"}
233 @string{EOroudjev = "Oroudjev, E."}
234 @string{OUP = "Oxford University Press"}
235 @string{EPaci = "Paci, Emanuele"}
236 @string{YPPang = "Pang, Y. P."}
237 @string{VParpura = "Parpura, Vladimir"}
238 @string{QPeng = "Peng, Qing"}
239 @string{OPerisic = "Perisic, Ognjen"}
240 @string{CLPeterson = "Peterson, Craig L."}
241 @string{PPeterson = "Peterson, Pearu"}
242 @string{PTRSL = "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London"}
243 @string{PRL = "Phys Rev Lett"}
244 @string{PRE = "Phys. Rev. E"}
245 @string{Physica = "Physica"}
246 @string{CPickett = "Pickett, Chris"}
247 @string{WPress = "Press, W."}
248 @string{PNAS = "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences U.S.A"}
249 @string{ProtSci = "Protein Sci"}
250 @string{Proteins = "Proteins"}
251 @string{SRQuake = "Quake, Stephen R."}
252 @string{SERadford = "Radford, Sheena E."}
253 @string{MRaible = "Raible, M."}
254 @string{NRamsey = "Ramsey, Norman"}
255 @string{LGRandles = "Randles, Lucy G."}
256 @string{SDRedick = "Redick, Sambra D."}
257 @string{ZReich = "Reich, Ziv"}
258 @string{PReimann = "Reimann, P."}
259 @string{RMP = "Rev. Mod. Phys."}
260 @string{RSI = "Review of Scientific Instruments"}
261 @string{FRief = "Rief, Frederick"}
262 @string{MRief = "Rief, Matthias"}
263 @string{KRitchie = "Ritchie, K."}
264 @string{RBRobertson = "Robertson, Ragan B."}
265 @string{HRoder = "Roder, Heinrich"}
266 @string{RRos = "Ros, R."}
267 @string{BRosenberg = "Rosenberg, B."}
268 @string{FRossi = "Rossi, Fabrice"}
269 @string{BSamori = "Samori, Bruno"}
270 @string{ASarkar = "Sarkar, Atom"}
271 @string{TSato = "Sato, Takehiro"}
272 @string{PSchaaf = "Schaaf, P."}
273 @string{RSchafer = "Schafer, Rolf"}
274 @string{NFScherer = "Scherer, Norbert F."}
275 @string{MSchleicher = "Schleicher, Michael"}
276 @string{MSchlierf = "Schlierf, Michael"}
277 @string{KSchulten = "Schulten, Klaus"}
278 @string{ZSchulten = "Schulten, Zan"}
279 @string{ISchwaiger = "Schwaiger, Ingo"}
280 @string{SCI = "Science"}
281 @string{USeifert = "Seifert, Udo"}
282 @string{BSenger = "Senger, B."}
283 @string{EShakhnovich = "Shakhnovich, Eugene"}
284 @string{DSharma = "Sharma, Deepak"}
285 @string{YJSheng = "Sheng, Yu-Jane"}
286 @string{JShillcock = "Shillcock, Julian"}
287 @string{EDSiggia = "Siggia, Eric D."}
288 @string{CLSmith = "Smith, Corey L."}
289 @string{DASmith = "Smith, D. Alastair"}
290 @string{SBSmith = "Smith, S. B."}
291 @string{JSoares = "Soares, J."}
292 @string{NDSocci = "Socci, N. D."}
293 @string{DWSpeicher = "Speicher, David W."}
294 @string{SStepaniants = "Stepaniants, S."}
295 @string{AStout = "Stout, A."}
296 @string{CStroh = "Stroh, Cordula"}
297 @string{TStrunz = "Strunz, Torsten"}
298 @string{MSu = "Su, Meihong"}
299 @string{ASzabo = "Szabo, Attila"}
300 @string{DSTalaga = "Talaga, David S."}
301 @string{PTalkner = "Talkner, Peter"}
302 @string{JTang = "Tang, Jianyong"}
303 @string{STeukolsky = "Teukolsky, S."}
304 @string{JCP = "The Journal of Chemical Physics"}
305 @string{RS = "The Royal Society"}
306 @string{JTheiler = "Theiler, James"}
307 @string{DThirumalai = "Thirumalai, D."}
308 @string{JBThompson = "Thompson, J. B."}
309 @string{TTlusty = "Tlusty, Tsvi"}
310 @string{JLToca-Herrera = "Toca-Herrera, Jose L."}
311 @string{JTrinick = "Trinick, John"}
312 @string{CHTsai = "Tsai, Chih-Hui"}
313 @string{HKTsao = "Tsao, Heng-Kwong"}
314 @string{MUrbakh = "Urbakh, M."}
315 @string{IRVetter = "Vetter, Ingrid R."}
316 @string{WVetterling = "Vetterling, W."}
317 @string{JCVoegel = "Voegel, J.-C."}
318 @string{VVogel = "Vogel, Viola"}
319 @string{KAWalther = "Walther, Kirstin A."}
320 @string{EBWalton = "Walton, Emily B."}
321 @string{MDWang = "Wang, Michelle D."}
322 @string{KWatanabe = "Watanabe, Kaori"}
323 @string{APWiita = "Wiita, Arun P."}
324 @string{Wikipedia = "Wikipedia"}
325 @string{AJWilcox = "Wilcox, Alexander J."}
326 @string{SWilson = "Wilson, Scott"}
327 @string{CWitt = "Witt, Christian"}
328 @string{PGWolynes = "Wolynes, P. G."}
329 @string{JWWu = "Wu, Jong-Wuu"}
330 @string{YWu = "Wu, Yiming"}
331 @string{GYang = "Yang, Guoliang"}
332 @string{YYang = "Yang, Yao"}
333 @string{RCYeh = "Yeh, Richard C."}
334 @string{WYu = "Yu, Weichang"}
335 @string{JMZhao = "Zhao, Jason Ming"}
336 @string{WZhuang = "Zhuang, Wei"}
337 @string{RCZinober = "Zinober, Rebecca C."}
338 @string{others = "others"}
339 @string{NGvanKampen = "van Kampen, N.G."}
340 @string{GvanRossum = "van Rossum, Guido"}
341 @string{KJvanVliet = "van Vliet, Krystyn J."}
343 @article { balsera97,
344 author = MBalsera #" and "# SStepaniants #" and "# SIzrailev #" and "#
345 YOono #" and "# KSchulten,
346 title = "Reconstructing potential energy functions from simulated force-
347 induced unbinding processes.",
353 pages = "1281--1287",
355 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/73/3/1281.pdf",
356 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/73/3/1281",
357 keywords = "Binding Sites; Biopolymers; Kinetics; Ligands; Microscopy,
358 Atomic Force; Models, Chemical; Molecular Conformation; Protein
359 Conformation; Proteins; Reproducibility of Results; Stochastic
360 Processes; Thermodynamics",
361 abstract = "One-dimensional stochastic models demonstrate that molecular
362 dynamics simulations of a few nanoseconds can be used to reconstruct
363 the essential features of the binding potential of macromolecules. This
364 can be accomplished by inducing the unbinding with the help of external
365 forces applied to the molecules, and discounting the irreversible work
366 performed on the system by these forces. The fluctuation-dissipation
367 theorem sets a fundamental limit on the precision with which the
368 binding potential can be reconstructed by this method. The uncertainty
369 in the resulting potential is linearly proportional to the irreversible
370 component of work performed on the system during the simulation. These
371 results provide an a priori estimate of the energy barriers observable
372 in molecular dynamics simulations."
376 author = GBaneyx #" and "# LBaugh #" and "# VVogel,
377 title = "{Supramolecular Chemistry And Self-assembly Special Feature:
378 Fibronectin extension and unfolding within cell matrix fibrils
379 controlled by cytoskeletal tension}",
384 pages = "5139--5143",
385 doi = "10.1073/pnas.072650799",
386 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/99/8/5139.pdf",
387 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/8/5139",
388 abstract = "Evidence is emerging that mechanical stretching can alter the
389 functional states of proteins. Fibronectin (Fn) is a large,
390 extracellular matrix protein that is assembled by cells into elastic
391 fibrils and subjected to contractile forces. Assembly into fibrils
392 coincides with expression of biological recognition sites that are
393 buried in Fn's soluble state. To investigate how supramolecular
394 assembly of Fn into fibrillar matrix enables cells to mechanically
395 regulate its structure, we used fluorescence resonance energy transfer
396 (FRET) as an indicator of Fn conformation in the fibrillar matrix of
397 NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. Fn was randomly labeled on amine residues with
398 donor fluorophores and site-specifically labeled on cysteine residues
399 in modules FnIII7 and FnIII15 with acceptor fluorophores.
400 Intramolecular FRET was correlated with known structural changes of Fn
401 in denaturing solution, then applied in cell culture as an indicator of
402 Fn conformation within the matrix fibrils of NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. Based
403 on the level of FRET, Fn in many fibrils was stretched by cells so that
404 its dimer arms were extended and at least one FnIII module unfolded.
405 When cytoskeletal tension was disrupted using cytochalasin D, FRET
406 increased, indicating refolding of Fn within fibrils. These results
407 suggest that cell-generated force is required to maintain Fn in
408 partially unfolded conformations. The results support a model of Fn
409 fibril elasticity based on unraveling and refolding of FnIII modules.
410 We also observed variation of FRET between and along single fibrils,
411 indicating variation in the degree of unfolding of Fn in fibrils.
412 Molecular mechanisms by which mechanical force can alter the structure
413 of Fn, converting tensile forces into biochemical cues, are discussed."
417 author = TBasche #" and "# SNie #" and "# JMFernandez,
418 title = "{Single molecules}",
423 pages = "10527--10528",
424 doi = "10.1073/pnas.191365898",
425 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/19/10527.pdf",
426 url = "http://www.pnas.org"
429 @article { bechhoefer02,
430 author = JBechhoefer #" and "# SWilson,
431 title = "Faster, cheaper, safer optical tweezers for the undergraduate
440 doi = "10.1119/1.1445403",
441 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?AJP/70/393/1",
442 keywords = "student experiments; safety; radiation pressure; laser beam
444 note = "Good discussion of the effect of correlation time on calibration.
445 Excellent detail on power spectrum derivation and thermal noise for
446 extremely overdamped oscillators in Appendix A (references
447 \cite{reif65}). References work on deconvolving thermal noise from
448 other noise\cite{cowan98}",
449 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
454 title = "Models for the specific adhesion of cells to cells.",
463 url = "http://www.jstor.org/stable/1746930",
464 keywords = "Antigen-Antibody Reactions; Cell Adhesion; Cell Membrane;
465 Chemistry, Physical; Electrophysiology; Enzymes; Glycoproteins;
466 Kinetics; Ligands; Membrane Proteins; Models, Biological; Receptors,
468 abstract = "A theoretical framework is proposed for the analysis of
469 adhesion between cells or of cells to surfaces when the adhesion is
470 mediated by reversible bonds between specific molecules such as antigen
471 and antibody, lectin and carbohydrate, or enzyme and substrate. From a
472 knowledge of the reaction rates for reactants in solution and of their
473 diffusion constants both in solution and on membranes, it is possible
474 to estimate reaction rates for membrane-bound reactants. Two models are
475 developed for predicting the rate of bond formation between cells and
476 are compared with experiments. The force required to separate two cells
477 is shown to be greater than the expected electrical forces between
478 cells, and of the same order of magnitude as the forces required to
479 pull gangliosides and perhaps some integral membrane proteins out of
481 note = "The Bell model and a fair bit of cell bonding background.",
482 project = "sawtooth simulation"
486 author = RBBest #" and "# SBFowler #" and "# JLToca-Herrera #" and "#
488 title = "{A simple method for probing the mechanical unfolding pathway of
489 proteins in detail}",
496 pages = "12143--12148",
497 doi = "10.1073/pnas.192351899",
498 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/99/19/12143.pdf",
499 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/19/12143",
500 abstract = "Atomic force microscopy is an exciting new single-molecule
501 technique to add to the toolbox of protein (un)folding methods.
502 However, detailed analysis of the unfolding of proteins on application
503 of force has, to date, relied on protein molecular dynamics simulations
504 or a qualitative interpretation of mutant data. Here we describe how
505 protein engineering {Phi} value analysis can be adapted to characterize
506 the transition states for mechanical unfolding of proteins. Single-
507 molecule studies also have an advantage over bulk experiments, in that
508 partial {Phi} values arising from partial structure in the transition
509 state can be clearly distinguished from those averaged over alternate
510 pathways. We show that unfolding rate constants derived in the standard
511 way by using Monte Carlo simulations are not reliable because of the
512 errors involved. However, it is possible to circumvent these problems,
513 providing the unfolding mechanism is not changed by mutation, either by
514 a modification of the Monte Carlo procedure or by comparing mutant and
515 wild-type data directly. The applicability of the method is tested on
516 simulated data sets and experimental data for mutants of titin I27."
519 @article { braverman08,
520 author = EBraverman #" and "# RMamdani,
521 title = "Continuous versus pulse harvesting for population models in
522 constant and variable environment.",
531 doi = "10.1007/s00285-008-0169-z",
533 "http://www.springerlink.com/content/a1m23v50201m2401/fulltext.pdf",
534 url = "http://www.springerlink.com/content/a1m23v50201m2401/",
535 abstract = "We consider both autonomous and nonautonomous population models
536 subject to either impulsive or continuous harvesting. It is
537 demonstrated in the paper that the impulsive strategy can be as good as
538 the continuous one, but cannot outperform it. We introduce a model,
539 where certain harm to the population is incorporated in each harvesting
540 event, and study it for the logistic and the Gompertz laws of growth.
541 In this case, impulsive harvesting is not only the optimal strategy but
542 is the only possible one.",
543 note = "An example of non-exponential Gomperz law."
546 @article { brockwell02,
547 author = DJBrockwell #" and "# GSBeddard #" and "# JClarkson #" and "#
548 RCZinober #" and "# AWBlake #" and "# JTrinick #" and "# PDOlmsted #"
549 and "# DASmith #" and "# SERadford,
550 title = "The effect of core destabilization on the mechanical resistance of
559 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/83/1/458.pdf",
560 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/83/1/458",
561 keywords = "Amino Acid Sequence; Dose-Response Relationship, Drug;
562 Kinetics; Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy; Models, Molecular; Molecular
563 Sequence Data; Monte Carlo Method; Muscle Proteins; Mutation; Peptide
564 Fragments; Protein Denaturation; Protein Folding; Protein Kinases;
565 Protein Structure, Secondary; Protein Structure, Tertiary; Proteins;
567 abstract = "It is still unclear whether mechanical unfolding probes the
568 same pathways as chemical denaturation. To address this point, we have
569 constructed a concatamer of five mutant I27 domains (denoted (I27)(5)*)
570 and used it for mechanical unfolding studies. This protein consists of
571 four copies of the mutant C47S, C63S I27 and a single copy of C63S I27.
572 These mutations severely destabilize I27 (DeltaDeltaG(UN) = 8.7 and
573 17.9 kJ mol(-1) for C63S I27 and C47S, C63S I27, respectively). Both
574 mutations maintain the hydrogen bond network between the A' and G
575 strands postulated to be the major region of mechanical resistance for
576 I27. Measuring the speed dependence of the force required to unfold
577 (I27)(5)* in triplicate using the atomic force microscope allowed a
578 reliable assessment of the intrinsic unfolding rate constant of the
579 protein to be obtained (2.0 x 10(-3) s(-1)). The rate constant of
580 unfolding measured by chemical denaturation is over fivefold faster
581 (1.1 x 10(-2) s(-1)), suggesting that these techniques probe different
582 unfolding pathways. Also, by comparing the parameters obtained from the
583 mechanical unfolding of a wild-type I27 concatamer with that of
584 (I27)(5)*, we show that although the observed forces are considerably
585 lower, core destabilization has little effect on determining the
586 mechanical sensitivity of this domain."
589 @article { brower-toland02,
590 author = BDBrower-Toland #" and "# CLSmith #" and "# RCYeh #" and "# JTLis
591 #" and "# CLPeterson #" and "# MDWang,
592 title = "{From the Cover: Mechanical disruption of individual nucleosomes
593 reveals a reversible multistage release of DNA}",
598 pages = "1960--1965",
599 doi = "10.1073/pnas.022638399",
600 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/99/4/1960.pdf",
601 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/4/1960",
602 abstract = "The dynamic structure of individual nucleosomes was examined by
603 stretching nucleosomal arrays with a feedback-enhanced optical trap.
604 Forced disassembly of each nucleosome occurred in three stages.
605 Analysis of the data using a simple worm-like chain model yields 76 bp
606 of DNA released from the histone core at low stretching force.
607 Subsequently, 80 bp are released at higher forces in two stages: full
608 extension of DNA with histones bound, followed by detachment of
609 histones. When arrays were relaxed before the dissociated state was
610 reached, nucleosomes were able to reassemble and to repeat the
611 disassembly process. The kinetic parameters for nucleosome disassembly
612 also have been determined."
615 @article { bryngelson87,
616 author = JDBryngelson #" and "# PGWolynes,
617 title = "Spin glasses and the statistical mechanics of protein folding.",
623 pages = "7524--7528",
625 keywords = "Kinetics; Mathematics; Models, Theoretical; Protein
626 Conformation; Proteins; Stochastic Processes",
627 abstract = "The theory of spin glasses was used to study a simple model of
628 protein folding. The phase diagram of the model was calculated, and the
629 results of dynamics calculations are briefly reported. The relation of
630 these results to folding experiments, the relation of these hypotheses
631 to previous protein folding theories, and the implication of these
632 hypotheses for protein folding prediction schemes are discussed.",
633 note = "Seminal protein folding via energy landscape paper."
636 @article { bryngelson95,
637 author = JDBryngelson #" and "# JNOnuchic #" and "# NDSocci #" and "#
639 title = "Funnels, pathways, and the energy landscape of protein folding: a
648 doi = "10.1002/prot.340210302",
649 keywords = "Amino Acid Sequence; Chemistry, Physical; Computer Simulation;
650 Data Interpretation, Statistical; Kinetics; Models, Chemical; Molecular
651 Sequence Data; Protein Biosynthesis; Protein Conformation; Protein
652 Folding; Proteins; Thermodynamics",
653 abstract = "The understanding, and even the description of protein folding
654 is impeded by the complexity of the process. Much of this complexity
655 can be described and understood by taking a statistical approach to the
656 energetics of protein conformation, that is, to the energy landscape.
657 The statistical energy landscape approach explains when and why unique
658 behaviors, such as specific folding pathways, occur in some proteins
659 and more generally explains the distinction between folding processes
660 common to all sequences and those peculiar to individual sequences.
661 This approach also gives new, quantitative insights into the
662 interpretation of experiments and simulations of protein folding
663 thermodynamics and kinetics. Specifically, the picture provides simple
664 explanations for folding as a two-state first-order phase transition,
665 for the origin of metastable collapsed unfolded states and for the
666 curved Arrhenius plots observed in both laboratory experiments and
667 discrete lattice simulations. The relation of these quantitative ideas
668 to folding pathways, to uniexponential vs. multiexponential behavior in
669 protein folding experiments and to the effect of mutations on folding
670 is also discussed. The success of energy landscape ideas in protein
671 structure prediction is also described. The use of the energy landscape
672 approach for analyzing data is illustrated with a quantitative analysis
673 of some recent simulations, and a qualitative analysis of experiments
674 on the folding of three proteins. The work unifies several previously
675 proposed ideas concerning the mechanism protein folding and delimits
676 the regions of validity of these ideas under different thermodynamic
680 @article { bullard06,
681 author = BBullard #" and "# TGarcia #" and "# VBenes #" and "# MCLeake #"
682 and "# WALinke #" and "# AFOberhauser,
683 title = "{The molecular elasticity of the insect flight muscle proteins
684 projectin and kettin}",
689 pages = "4451--4456",
690 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0509016103",
691 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/12/4451.pdf",
692 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/12/4451",
693 abstract = "Projectin and kettin are titin-like proteins mainly responsible
694 for the high passive stiffness of insect indirect flight muscles, which
695 is needed to generate oscillatory work during flight. Here we report
696 the mechanical properties of kettin and projectin by single-molecule
697 force spectroscopy. Force-extension and force-clamp curves obtained
698 from Lethocerus projectin and Drosophila recombinant projectin or
699 kettin fragments revealed that fibronectin type III domains in
700 projectin are mechanically weaker (unfolding force, Fu {approx} 50-150
701 pN) than Ig-domains (Fu {approx} 150-250 pN). Among Ig domains in
702 Sls/kettin, the domains near the N terminus are less stable than those
703 near the C terminus. Projectin domains refolded very fast [85% at 15
704 s-1 (25{degrees}C)] and even under high forces (15-30 pN). Temperature
705 affected the unfolding forces with a Q10 of 1.3, whereas the refolding
706 speed had a Q10 of 2-3, probably reflecting the cooperative nature of
707 the folding mechanism. High bending rigidities of projectin and kettin
708 indicated that straightening the proteins requires low forces. Our
709 results suggest that titin-like proteins in indirect flight muscles
710 could function according to a folding-based-spring mechanism."
713 @article { bustamante94,
714 author = CBustamante #" and "# JFMarko #" and "# EDSiggia #" and "#
716 title = "Entropic elasticity of lambda-phage {DNA}.",
723 pages = "1599--1600",
725 keywords = "Bacteriophage lambda; DNA, Viral; Least-Squares Analysis;
727 note = "WLC interpolation formula."
730 @article { bustanji03,
731 author = YBustanji #" and "# CRArciola #" and "# MConti #" and "#
732 EMandello #" and "# LMontanaro #" and "# BSamori,
733 title = "{Dynamics of the interaction between a fibronectin molecule and a
734 living bacterium under mechanical force}",
739 pages = "13292--13297",
740 doi = "10.1073/pnas.1735343100",
741 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/23/13292.pdf",
742 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/23/13292",
743 abstract = "Fibronectin (Fn) is an important mediator of bacterial
744 invasions and of persistent infections like that of Staphylococcus
745 epidermis. Similar to many other types of cell-protein adhesion, the
746 binding between Fn and S. epidermidis takes place under physiological
747 shear rates. We investigated the dynamics of the interaction between
748 individual living S. epidermidis cells and single Fn molecules under
749 mechanical force by using the scanning force microscope. The mechanical
750 strength of this interaction and the binding site in the Fn molecule
751 were determined. The energy landscape of the binding/unbinding process
752 was mapped, and the force spectrum and the association and dissociation
753 rate constants of the binding pair were measured. The interaction
754 between S. epidermidis cells and Fn molecules is compared with those of
755 two other protein/ligand pairs known to mediate different dynamic
756 states of adhesion of cells under a hydrodynamic flow: the firm
757 adhesion mediated by biotin/avidin interactions, and the rolling
758 adhesion, mediated by L-selectin/P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1
759 interactions. The inner barrier in the energy landscape of the Fn case
760 characterizes a high-energy binding mode that can sustain larger
761 deformations and for significantly longer times than the correspondent
762 high-strength L-selectin/P-selectin glycoprotein ligand-1 binding mode.
763 The association kinetics of the former interaction is much slower to
764 settle than the latter. On this basis, the observations made at the
765 macroscopic scale by other authors of a strong lability of the
766 bacterial adhesions mediated by Fn under high turbulent flow are
767 rationalized at the molecular level."
771 author = YCao #" and "# MMBalamurali #" and "# DSharma #" and "# HLi,
772 title = "{A functional single-molecule binding assay via force
778 pages = "15677--15681",
779 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0705367104",
780 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/40/15677.pdf",
781 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/40/15677",
782 abstract = "Proteinligand interactions, including proteinprotein
783 interactions, are ubiquitously essential in biological processes and
784 also have important applications in biotechnology. A wide range of
785 methodologies have been developed for quantitative analysis of
786 proteinligand interactions. However, most of them do not report direct
787 functional/structural consequence of ligand binding. Instead they only
788 detect the change of physical properties, such as fluorescence and
789 refractive index, because of the colocalization of protein and ligand,
790 and are susceptible to false positives. Thus, important information
791 about the functional state of proteinligand complexes cannot be
792 obtained directly. Here we report a functional single-molecule binding
793 assay that uses force spectroscopy to directly probe the functional
794 consequence of ligand binding and report the functional state of
795 proteinligand complexes. As a proof of principle, we used protein G and
796 the Fc fragment of IgG as a model system in this study. Binding of Fc
797 to protein G does not induce major structural changes in protein G but
798 results in significant enhancement of its mechanical stability. Using
799 mechanical stability of protein G as an intrinsic functional reporter,
800 we directly distinguished and quantified Fc-bound and Fc-free forms of
801 protein G on a single-molecule basis and accurately determined their
802 dissociation constant. This single-molecule functional binding assay is
803 label-free, nearly background-free, and can detect functional
804 heterogeneity, if any, among proteinligand interactions. This
805 methodology opens up avenues for studying proteinligand interactions in
806 a functional context, and we anticipate that it will find broad
807 application in diverse proteinligand systems."
811 author = PCarl #" and "# CHKwok #" and "# GManderson #" and "# DWSpeicher
813 title = "{Forced unfolding modulated by disulfide bonds in the Ig domains
814 of a cell adhesion molecule}",
819 pages = "1565--1570",
820 doi = "10.1073/pnas.031409698",
821 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/4/1565.pdf",
822 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/4/1565",
826 @article { carrion-vazquez99a,
827 author = MCarrion-Vazquez #" and "# AFOberhauser #" and "# SBFowler #" and
828 "# PEMarszalek #" and "# SEBroedel #" and "# JClarke #" and "#
830 title = "Mechanical and chemical unfolding of a single protein: A
838 pages = "3694--3699",
839 doi = "10.1073/pnas.96.7.3694",
840 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/96/7/3694.pdf",
841 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/7/3694"
844 @article { carrion-vazquez99b,
845 author = MCarrion-Vazquez #" and "# PEMarszalek #" and "# AFOberhauser #"
847 title = "Atomic force microscopy captures length phenotypes in single
855 pages = "11288--11292",
856 doi = "10.1073/pnas.96.20.11288",
857 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/96/20/11288.pdf",
858 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/20/11288",
864 title = "Statistical Data Analysis",
867 address = "New York",
868 note = "Noise deconvolution in Chapter 11",
869 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
873 author = DCraig #" and "# AKrammer #" and "# KSchulten #" and "# VVogel,
874 title = "{Comparison of the early stages of forced unfolding for
875 fibronectin type III modules}",
880 pages = "5590--5595",
881 doi = "10.1073/pnas.101582198",
882 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/10/5590.pdf",
883 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/10/5590",
888 author = HDietz #" and "# MRief,
889 title = "{Exploring the energy landscape of GFP by single-molecule
890 mechanical experiments}",
895 pages = "16192--16197",
896 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0404549101",
897 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/101/46/16192.pdf",
898 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/46/16192",
899 abstract = "We use single-molecule force spectroscopy to drive single GFP
900 molecules from the native state through their complex energy landscape
901 into the completely unfolded state. Unlike many smaller proteins,
902 mechanical GFP unfolding proceeds by means of two subsequent
903 intermediate states. The transition from the native state to the first
904 intermediate state occurs near thermal equilibrium at {approx}35 pN and
905 is characterized by detachment of a seven-residue N-terminal
906 {alpha}-helix from the beta barrel. We measure the equilibrium free
907 energy cost associated with this transition as 22 kBT. Detachment of
908 this small {alpha}-helix completely destabilizes GFP thermodynamically
909 even though the {beta}-barrel is still intact and can bear load.
910 Mechanical stability of the protein on the millisecond timescale,
911 however, is determined by the activation barrier of unfolding the
912 {beta}-barrel out of this thermodynamically unstable intermediate
913 state. High bandwidth, time-resolved measurements of the cantilever
914 relaxation phase upon unfolding of the {beta}-barrel revealed a second
915 metastable mechanical intermediate with one complete {beta}-strand
916 detached from the barrel. Quantitative analysis of force distributions
917 and lifetimes lead to a detailed picture of the complex mechanical
918 unfolding pathway through a rough energy landscape.",
919 note = "Nice energy-landscape-to-one-dimension compression graphic.
920 Unfolding Green Flourescent Protein (GFP) towards using it as an
921 embedded force probe.",
922 project = "Energy landscape roughness"
926 author = HDietz #" and "# FBerkemeier #" and "# MBertz #" and "# MRief,
927 title = "{Anisotropic deformation response of single protein molecules}",
932 pages = "12724--12728",
933 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0602995103",
934 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/34/12724.pdf",
935 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/34/12724",
936 abstract = "Single-molecule methods have given experimental access to the
937 mechanical properties of single protein molecules. So far, access has
938 been limited to mostly one spatial direction of force application.
939 Here, we report single-molecule experiments that explore the mechanical
940 properties of a folded protein structure in precisely controlled
941 directions by applying force to selected amino acid pairs. We
942 investigated the deformation response of GFP in five selected
943 directions. We found fracture forces widely varying from 100 pN up to
944 600 pN. We show that straining the GFP structure in one of the five
945 directions induces partial fracture of the protein into a half-folded
946 intermediate structure. From potential widths we estimated directional
947 spring constants of the GFP structure and found values ranging from 1
948 N/m up to 17 N/m. Our results show that classical continuum mechanics
949 and simple mechanistic models fail to describe the complex mechanics of
950 the GFP protein structure and offer insights into the mechanical design
951 of protein materials."
955 author = HDietz #" and "# MRief,
956 title = "{Protein structure by mechanical triangulation}",
961 pages = "1244--1247",
962 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0509217103",
963 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/5/1244.pdf",
964 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/5/1244",
965 abstract = "Knowledge of protein structure is essential to understand
966 protein function. High-resolution protein structure has so far been the
967 domain of ensemble methods. Here, we develop a simple single-molecule
968 technique to measure spatial position of selected residues within a
969 folded and functional protein structure in solution. Construction and
970 mechanical unfolding of cysteine-engineered polyproteins with
971 controlled linkage topology allows measuring intramolecular distance
972 with angstrom precision. We demonstrate the potential of this technique
973 by determining the position of three residues in the structure of green
974 fluorescent protein (GFP). Our results perfectly agree with the GFP
975 crystal structure. Mechanical triangulation can find many applications
976 where current bulk structural methods fail."
980 author = HDietz #" and "# MRief,
981 title = "Detecting Molecular Fingerprints in Single Molecule Force
982 Spectroscopy Using Pattern Recognition",
987 pages = "5540--5542",
989 doi = "10.1143/JJAP.46.5540",
990 url = "http://jjap.ipap.jp/link?JJAP/46/5540/",
991 keywords = "single molecule, protein mechanics, force spectroscopy, AFM,
992 pattern recognition, GFP",
993 abstract = "Single molecule force spectroscopy has given experimental
994 access to the mechanical properties of protein molecules. Typically,
995 less than 1% of the experimental recordings reflect true single
996 molecule events due to abundant surface and multiple-molecule
997 interactions. A key issue in single molecule force spectroscopy is thus
998 to identify the characteristic mechanical `fingerprint' of a specific
999 protein in noisy data sets. Here, we present an objective pattern
1000 recognition algorithm that is able to identify fingerprints in such
1002 note = "Automatic force curve selection. Seems a bit shoddy. Details
1006 @article { discher06,
1007 author = DEDischer #" and "# NBhasin #" and "# CPJohnson,
1008 title = "{Covalent chemistry on distended proteins}",
1013 pages = "7533--7534",
1014 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0602388103",
1015 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/20/7533.pdf",
1016 url = "http://www.pnas.org"
1020 author = OKDudko #" and "# AEFilippov #" and "# JKlafter #" and "#
1022 title = "Beyond the conventional description of dynamic force spectroscopy
1023 of adhesion bonds.",
1030 pages = "11378--11381",
1032 doi = "10.1073/pnas.1534554100",
1033 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/content/100/20/11378.full.pdf",
1034 url = "http://www.pnas.org/content/100/20/11378.abstract",
1035 keywords = "Spectrum Analysis; Temperature",
1036 abstract = "Dynamic force spectroscopy of single molecules is described by
1037 a model that predicts a distribution of rupture forces, the
1038 corresponding mean rupture force, and variance, which are all amenable
1039 to experimental tests. The distribution has a pronounced asymmetry,
1040 which has recently been observed experimentally. The mean rupture force
1041 follows a (lnV)2/3 dependence on the pulling velocity, V, and differs
1042 from earlier predictions. Interestingly, at low pulling velocities, a
1043 rebinding process is obtained whose signature is an intermittent
1044 behavior of the spring force, which delays the rupture. An extension to
1045 include conformational changes of the adhesion complex is proposed,
1046 which leads to the possibility of bimodal distributions of rupture
1051 author = OKDudko #" and "# GHummer #" and "# ASzabo,
1052 title = "Intrinsic rates and activation free energies from single-molecule
1053 pulling experiments.",
1062 doi = "10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.108101",
1063 keywords = "Biophysics; Computer Simulation; Data Interpretation,
1064 Statistical; Kinetics; Micromanipulation; Models, Chemical; Models,
1065 Molecular; Molecular Conformation; Muscle Proteins; Nucleic Acid
1066 Conformation; Protein Binding; Protein Denaturation; Protein Folding;
1067 Protein Kinases; RNA; Stress, Mechanical; Thermodynamics; Time Factors",
1068 abstract = "We present a unified framework for extracting kinetic
1069 information from single-molecule pulling experiments at constant force
1070 or constant pulling speed. Our procedure provides estimates of not only
1071 (i) the intrinsic rate coefficient and (ii) the location of the
1072 transition state but also (iii) the free energy of activation. By
1073 analyzing simulated data, we show that the resulting rates of force-
1074 induced rupture are significantly more reliable than those obtained by
1075 the widely used approach based on Bell's formula. We consider the
1076 uniqueness of the extracted kinetic information and suggest guidelines
1077 to avoid over-interpretation of experiments."
1081 author = OKDudko #" and "# JMathe #" and "# ASzabo #" and "# AMeller #"
1083 title = "Extracting kinetics from single-molecule force spectroscopy:
1084 nanopore unzipping of {DNA} hairpins.",
1091 pages = "4188--4195",
1093 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.106.102855",
1094 eprint = "http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1877759&blo
1096 keywords = "Computer Simulation; DNA; Elasticity; Mechanics;
1097 Micromanipulation; Microscopy, Atomic Force; Models, Chemical; Models,
1098 Molecular; Nanostructures; Nucleic Acid Conformation; Porosity; Stress,
1100 abstract = "Single-molecule force experiments provide powerful new tools to
1101 explore biomolecular interactions. Here, we describe a systematic
1102 procedure for extracting kinetic information from force-spectroscopy
1103 experiments, and apply it to nanopore unzipping of individual DNA
1104 hairpins. Two types of measurements are considered: unzipping at
1105 constant voltage, and unzipping at constant voltage-ramp speeds. We
1106 perform a global maximum-likelihood analysis of the experimental data
1107 at low-to-intermediate ramp speeds. To validate the theoretical models,
1108 we compare their predictions with two independent sets of data,
1109 collected at high ramp speeds and at constant voltage, by using a
1110 quantitative relation between the two types of measurements.
1111 Microscopic approaches based on Kramers theory of diffusive barrier
1112 crossing allow us to estimate not only intrinsic rates and transition
1113 state locations, as in the widely used phenomenological approach based
1114 on Bell's formula, but also free energies of activation. The problem of
1115 extracting unique and accurate kinetic parameters of a molecular
1116 transition is discussed in light of the apparent success of the
1117 microscopic theories in reproducing the experimental data."
1121 author = EEvans #" and "# KRitchie,
1122 title = "Dynamic strength of molecular adhesion bonds.",
1128 pages = "1541--1555",
1130 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/72/4/1541.pdf",
1131 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/4/1541",
1132 keywords = "Avidin; Biotin; Chemistry, Physical; Computer Simulation;
1133 Mathematics; Monte Carlo Method; Protein Binding",
1134 abstract = "In biology, molecular linkages at, within, and beneath cell
1135 interfaces arise mainly from weak noncovalent interactions. These bonds
1136 will fail under any level of pulling force if held for sufficient time.
1137 Thus, when tested with ultrasensitive force probes, we expect cohesive
1138 material strength and strength of adhesion at interfaces to be time-
1139 and loading rate-dependent properties. To examine what can be learned
1140 from measurements of bond strength, we have extended Kramers' theory
1141 for reaction kinetics in liquids to bond dissociation under force and
1142 tested the predictions by smart Monte Carlo (Brownian dynamics)
1143 simulations of bond rupture. By definition, bond strength is the force
1144 that produces the most frequent failure in repeated tests of breakage,
1145 i.e., the peak in the distribution of rupture forces. As verified by
1146 the simulations, theory shows that bond strength progresses through
1147 three dynamic regimes of loading rate. First, bond strength emerges at
1148 a critical rate of loading (> or = 0) at which spontaneous dissociation
1149 is just frequent enough to keep the distribution peak at zero force. In
1150 the slow-loading regime immediately above the critical rate, strength
1151 grows as a weak power of loading rate and reflects initial coupling of
1152 force to the bonding potential. At higher rates, there is crossover to
1153 a fast regime in which strength continues to increase as the logarithm
1154 of the loading rate over many decades independent of the type of
1155 attraction. Finally, at ultrafast loading rates approaching the domain
1156 of molecular dynamics simulations, the bonding potential is quickly
1157 overwhelmed by the rapidly increasing force, so that only naked
1158 frictional drag on the structure remains to retard separation. Hence,
1159 to expose the energy landscape that governs bond strength, molecular
1160 adhesion forces must be examined over an enormous span of time scales.
1161 However, a significant gap exists between the time domain of force
1162 measurements in the laboratory and the extremely fast scale of
1163 molecular motions. Using results from a simulation of biotin-avidin
1164 bonds (Izrailev, S., S. Stepaniants, M. Balsera, Y. Oono, and K.
1165 Schulten. 1997. Molecular dynamics study of unbinding of the avidin-
1166 biotin complex. Biophys. J., this issue), we describe how Brownian
1167 dynamics can help bridge the gap between molecular dynamics and probe
1169 project = "sawtooth simulation"
1173 author = EEvans #" and "# KRitchie,
1174 title = "Strength of a weak bond connecting flexible polymer chains.",
1180 pages = "2439--2447",
1182 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/76/5/2439.pdf",
1183 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/76/5/2439",
1184 keywords = "Animals; Biophysics; Biopolymers; Microscopy, Atomic Force;
1185 Models, Chemical; Muscle Proteins; Protein Folding; Protein Kinases;
1186 Stochastic Processes; Stress, Mechanical; Thermodynamics",
1187 abstract = "Bond dissociation under steadily rising force occurs most
1188 frequently at a time governed by the rate of loading (Evans and
1189 Ritchie, 1997 Biophys. J. 72:1541-1555). Multiplied by the loading
1190 rate, the breakage time specifies the force for most frequent failure
1191 (called bond strength) that obeys the same dependence on loading rate.
1192 The spectrum of bond strength versus log(loading rate) provides an
1193 image of the energy landscape traversed in the course of unbonding.
1194 However, when a weak bond is connected to very compliant elements like
1195 long polymers, the load applied to the bond does not rise steadily
1196 under constant pulling speed. Because of nonsteady loading, the most
1197 frequent breakage force can differ significantly from that of a bond
1198 loaded at constant rate through stiff linkages. Using generic models
1199 for wormlike and freely jointed chains, we have analyzed the kinetic
1200 process of failure for a bond loaded by pulling the polymer linkages at
1201 constant speed. We find that when linked by either type of polymer
1202 chain, a bond is likely to fail at lower force under steady separation
1203 than through stiff linkages. Quite unexpectedly, a discontinuous jump
1204 can occur in bond strength at slow separation speed in the case of long
1205 polymer linkages. We demonstrate that the predictions of strength
1206 versus log(loading rate) can rationalize conflicting results obtained
1207 recently for unfolding Ig domains along muscle titin with different
1209 note = "Develops Kramers improvement on Bell model for domain unfolding.
1210 Presents unfolding under variable loading rates. Often cited as the
1211 ``Bell-Evans'' model? They derive a unitless treatment, scaling force
1212 by $f_\beta$, TODO; time by $\tau_f$, TODO; elasiticity by compliance
1213 $c(f)$. The appendix has relaxation time formulas for WLC and FJC
1215 project = "sawtooth simulation"
1219 author = MGalassi #" and "# JDavies #" and "# JTheiler #" and "# BGough #"
1220 and "# GJungman #" and "# MBooth #" and "# FRossi,
1221 title = "{GNU} Scientific Library: Reference Manual",
1223 edition = "Second Revised",
1224 pages = "xvi + 601",
1225 xxpages = "xvi + 580",
1226 isbn = "0-9541617-3-4",
1227 isbn-13 = "978-0-9541617-3-6",
1228 lccn = "QA76.73.C15",
1229 publisher = NetworkTheoryLtd,
1230 address = pub-NETWORK-THEORY:adr,
1231 bibdate = "Wed Oct 30 10:44:22 2002",
1232 url = "http://www.network-theory.co.uk/gsl/manual/",
1233 note = "This is the revised and updated second edition of the manual, and
1234 corresponds to version 1.6 of the library."
1238 author = MGao #" and "# DCraig #" and "# OLequin #" and "# IDCampbell #"
1239 and "# VVogel #" and "# KSchulten,
1240 title = "{Structure and functional significance of mechanically unfolded
1241 fibronectin type III1 intermediates}",
1246 pages = "14784--14789",
1247 doi = "10.1073/pnas.2334390100",
1248 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/25/14784.pdf",
1249 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/25/14784",
1250 abstract = "Fibronectin (FN) forms fibrillar networks coupling cells to the
1251 extracellular matrix. The formation of FN fibrils, fibrillogenesis, is
1252 a tightly regulated process involving the exposure of cryptic binding
1253 sites in individual FN type III (FN-III) repeats presumably exposed by
1254 mechanical tension. The FN-III1 module has been previously proposed to
1255 contain such cryptic sites that promote the assembly of extracellular
1256 matrix FN fibrils. We have combined NMR and steered molecular dynamics
1257 simulations to study the structure and mechanical unfolding pathway of
1258 FN-III1. This study finds that FN-III1 consists of a {beta}-sandwich
1259 structure that unfolds to a mechanically stable intermediate about four
1260 times the length of the native folded state. Considering previous
1261 experimental findings, our studies provide a structural model by which
1262 mechanical stretching of FN-III1 may induce fibrillogenesis through
1263 this partially unfolded intermediate."
1266 @article { gavrilov01,
1267 author = LAGavrilov #" and "# NSGavrilova,
1268 title = "The reliability theory of aging and longevity.",
1272 journal = JTheorBiol,
1277 doi = "10.1006/jtbi.2001.2430",
1278 keywords = "Adult; Aged; Aging; Animals; Humans; Longevity; Middle Aged;
1279 Models, Biological; Survival Rate; Systems Theory",
1280 abstract = "Reliability theory is a general theory about systems failure.
1281 It allows researchers to predict the age-related failure kinetics for a
1282 system of given architecture (reliability structure) and given
1283 reliability of its components. Reliability theory predicts that even
1284 those systems that are entirely composed of non-aging elements (with a
1285 constant failure rate) will nevertheless deteriorate (fail more often)
1286 with age, if these systems are redundant in irreplaceable elements.
1287 Aging, therefore, is a direct consequence of systems redundancy.
1288 Reliability theory also predicts the late-life mortality deceleration
1289 with subsequent leveling-off, as well as the late-life mortality
1290 plateaus, as an inevitable consequence of redundancy exhaustion at
1291 extreme old ages. The theory explains why mortality rates increase
1292 exponentially with age (the Gompertz law) in many species, by taking
1293 into account the initial flaws (defects) in newly formed systems. It
1294 also explains why organisms ``prefer'' to die according to the Gompertz
1295 law, while technical devices usually fail according to the Weibull
1296 (power) law. Theoretical conditions are specified when organisms die
1297 according to the Weibull law: organisms should be relatively free of
1298 initial flaws and defects. The theory makes it possible to find a
1299 general failure law applicable to all adult and extreme old ages, where
1300 the Gompertz and the Weibull laws are just special cases of this more
1301 general failure law. The theory explains why relative differences in
1302 mortality rates of compared populations (within a given species) vanish
1303 with age, and mortality convergence is observed due to the exhaustion
1304 of initial differences in redundancy levels. Overall, reliability
1305 theory has an amazing predictive and explanatory power with a few, very
1306 general and realistic assumptions. Therefore, reliability theory seems
1307 to be a promising approach for developing a comprehensive theory of
1308 aging and longevity integrating mathematical methods with specific
1309 biological knowledge.",
1310 note = "An example of exponential (standard) Gomperz law."
1313 @article { gergely00,
1314 author = CGergely #" and "# JCVoegel #" and "# PSchaaf #" and "# BSenger
1315 #" and "# MMaaloum #" and "# JKHHorber #" and "# JHemmerle,
1316 title = "{Unbinding process of adsorbed proteins under external stress
1317 studied by atomic force microscopy spectroscopy}",
1322 pages = "10802--10807",
1323 doi = "10.1073/pnas.180293097",
1324 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/20/10802.pdf",
1325 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/20/10802"
1328 @article { gompertz25,
1330 title = "On the Nature of the Function Expressive of the Law of Human
1331 Mortality, and on a New Mode of Determining the Value of Life
1340 copyright = "Copyright \copy\ 1825 The Royal Society",
1341 url = "http://www.jstor.org/stable/107756",
1345 @article { grossman05,
1346 author = CGrossman #" and "# AStout,
1347 title = "Optical Tweezers Advanced Lab",
1351 eprint = "http://chirality.swarthmore.edu/PHYS81/OpticalTweezers.pdf",
1352 note = "Fairly complete overdamped PSD derivation in section 4.3., cites
1353 \cite{tlusty98} and \cite{bechhoefer02} for further details. However,
1354 Tlusty (listed as reference 8) doesn't contain the thermal response
1355 fn.\ derivation it was cited for. Also, the single sided PSD definition
1356 credited to reference 9 (listed as Bechhoefer) looks more like Press
1357 (listed as reference 10). I imagine Grossman and Stout mixed up their
1358 references, and meant to refer to \cite{bechhoefer02} and
1359 \cite{press92} respectively instead.",
1360 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
1363 @article { hanggi90,
1364 author = PHanggi #" and "# PTalkner #" and "# MBorkovec,
1365 title = "Reaction-rate theory: fifty years after Kramers",
1374 doi = "10.1103/RevModPhys.62.251",
1375 eprint = "http://www.physik.uni-augsburg.de/theo1/hanggi/Papers/112.pdf",
1376 url = "http://prola.aps.org/abstract/RMP/v62/i2/p251_1",
1377 note = "\emph{The} Kramers' theory review article. See pages 268--279 for
1378 the Kramers-specific introduction.",
1379 project = "sawtooth simulation"
1382 @article { hatfield99,
1383 author = JWHatfield #" and "# SRQuake,
1384 title = "Dynamic Properties of an Extended Polymer in Solution",
1390 pages = "3548--3551",
1393 doi = "10.1103/PhysRevLett.82.3548",
1394 url = "http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v82/p3548",
1395 note = "Defines WLC and FJC models, citing textbooks.",
1396 project = "sawtooth simulation"
1399 @article { heymann00,
1400 author = BHeymann #" and "# HGrubmuller,
1401 title = "Dynamic force spectroscopy of molecular adhesion bonds.",
1408 pages = "6126--6129",
1410 doi = "10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.6126",
1411 eprint = "http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PRL/v84/i26/p6126_1",
1412 url = "http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v84/p6126",
1413 abstract = "Recent advances in atomic force microscopy, biomembrane force
1414 probe experiments, and optical tweezers allow one to measure the
1415 response of single molecules to mechanical stress with high precision.
1416 Such experiments, due to limited spatial resolution, typically access
1417 only one single force value in a continuous force profile that
1418 characterizes the molecular response along a reaction coordinate. We
1419 develop a theory that allows one to reconstruct force profiles from
1420 force spectra obtained from measurements at varying loading rates,
1421 without requiring increased resolution. We show that spectra obtained
1422 from measurements with different spring constants contain complementary
1426 @article { hummer01,
1427 author = GHummer #" and "# ASzabo,
1428 title = "{From the Cover: Free energy reconstruction from nonequilibrium
1429 single-molecule pulling experiments}",
1434 pages = "3658--3661",
1435 doi = "10.1073/pnas.071034098",
1436 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/7/3658.pdf",
1437 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/7/3658"
1440 @article { hummer03,
1441 author = GHummer #" and "# ASzabo,
1442 title = "Kinetics from nonequilibrium single-molecule pulling experiments.",
1450 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/85/1/5.pdf",
1451 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/85/1/5",
1452 keywords = "Computer Simulation; Crystallography; Energy Transfer;
1453 Kinetics; Lasers; Micromanipulation; Microscopy, Atomic Force; Models,
1454 Molecular; Molecular Conformation; Motion; Muscle Proteins;
1455 Nanotechnology; Physical Stimulation; Protein Conformation; Protein
1456 Denaturation; Protein Folding; Protein Kinases; Stress, Mechanical",
1457 abstract = "Mechanical forces exerted by laser tweezers or atomic force
1458 microscopes can be used to drive rare transitions in single molecules,
1459 such as unfolding of a protein or dissociation of a ligand. The
1460 phenomenological description of pulling experiments based on Bell's
1461 expression for the force-induced rupture rate is found to be inadequate
1462 when tested against computer simulations of a simple microscopic model
1463 of the dynamics. We introduce a new approach of comparable complexity
1464 to extract more accurate kinetic information about the molecular events
1465 from pulling experiments. Our procedure is based on the analysis of a
1466 simple stochastic model of pulling with a harmonic spring and
1467 encompasses the phenomenological approach, reducing to it in the
1468 appropriate limit. Our approach is tested against computer simulations
1469 of a multimodule titin model with anharmonic linkers and then an
1470 illustrative application is made to the forced unfolding of I27
1471 subunits of the protein titin. Our procedure to extract kinetic
1472 information from pulling experiments is simple to implement and should
1473 prove useful in the analysis of experiments on a variety of systems.",
1475 project = "sawtooth simulation"
1478 @article { hutter93,
1479 author = JLHutter #" and "# JBechhoefer,
1480 title = "Calibration of atomic-force microscope tips",
1486 pages = "1868--1873",
1488 doi = "10.1063/1.1143970",
1489 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?RSI/64/1868/1",
1490 keywords = "ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPY; CALIBRATION; QUALITY FACTOR; PROBES;
1491 RESONANCE; SILICON NITRIDES; MICA; VAN DER WAALS FORCES",
1492 note = "Seminal paper for thermal calibration of AFM cantilevers.",
1493 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
1497 author = CHyeon #" and "# DThirumalai,
1498 title = "Can energy landscape roughness of proteins and {RNA} be measured
1499 by using mechanical unfolding experiments?",
1506 pages = "10249--10253",
1508 doi = "10.1073/pnas.1833310100",
1509 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/18/10249.pdf",
1510 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/18/10249",
1511 keywords = "Protein Folding; Proteins; RNA; Temperature; Thermodynamics",
1512 abstract = "By considering temperature effects on the mechanical unfolding
1513 rates of proteins and RNA, whose energy landscape is rugged, the
1514 question posed in the title is answered in the affirmative. Adopting a
1515 theory by Zwanzig [Zwanzig, R. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 85,
1516 2029-2030], we show that, because of roughness characterized by an
1517 energy scale epsilon, the unfolding rate at constant force is retarded.
1518 Similarly, in nonequilibrium experiments done at constant loading
1519 rates, the most probable unfolding force increases because of energy
1520 landscape roughness. The effects are dramatic at low temperatures. Our
1521 analysis suggests that, by using temperature as a variable in
1522 mechanical unfolding experiments of proteins and RNA, the ruggedness
1523 energy scale epsilon, can be directly measured.",
1524 note = "Derives the major theory behind my thesis. The Kramers rate
1525 equation is Hanggi Eq. 4.56c (page 275)\cite{hanggi90}.",
1526 project = "Energy Landscape Roughness"
1529 @article { irback05,
1530 author = AIrback #" and "# SMitternacht #" and "# SMohanty,
1531 title = "{Dissecting the mechanical unfolding of ubiquitin}",
1536 pages = "13427--13432",
1537 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0501581102",
1538 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/38/13427.pdf",
1539 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/102/38/13427",
1540 abstract = "The unfolding behavior of ubiquitin under the influence of a
1541 stretching force recently was investigated experimentally by single-
1542 molecule constant-force methods. Many observed unfolding traces had a
1543 simple two-state character, whereas others showed clear evidence of
1544 intermediate states. Here, we use Monte Carlo simulations to
1545 investigate the force-induced unfolding of ubiquitin at the atomic
1546 level. In agreement with experimental data, we find that the unfolding
1547 process can occur either in a single step or through intermediate
1548 states. In addition to this randomness, we find that many quantities,
1549 such as the frequency of occurrence of intermediates, show a clear
1550 systematic dependence on the strength of the applied force. Despite
1551 this diversity, one common feature can be identified in the simulated
1552 unfolding events, which is the order in which the secondary-structure
1553 elements break. This order is the same in two- and three-state events
1554 and at the different forces studied. The observed order remains to be
1555 verified experimentally but appears physically reasonable."
1558 @article { izrailev97,
1559 author = SIzrailev #" and "# SStepaniants #" and "# MBalsera #" and "#
1560 YOono #" and "# KSchulten,
1561 title = "Molecular dynamics study of unbinding of the avidin-biotin
1568 pages = "1568--1581",
1570 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/72/4/1568.pdf",
1571 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/72/4/1568",
1572 keywords = "Avidin; Binding Sites; Biotin; Computer Simulation; Hydrogen
1573 Bonding; Mathematics; Microscopy, Atomic Force; Microspheres; Models,
1574 Molecular; Molecular Structure; Protein Binding; Protein Conformation;
1575 Protein Folding; Sepharose",
1576 abstract = "We report molecular dynamics simulations that induce, over
1577 periods of 40-500 ps, the unbinding of biotin from avidin by means of
1578 external harmonic forces with force constants close to those of AFM
1579 cantilevers. The applied forces are sufficiently large to reduce the
1580 overall binding energy enough to yield unbinding within the measurement
1581 time. Our study complements earlier work on biotin-streptavidin that
1582 employed a much larger harmonic force constant. The simulations reveal
1583 a variety of unbinding pathways, the role of key residues contributing
1584 to adhesion as well as the spatial range over which avidin binds
1585 biotin. In contrast to the previous studies, the calculated rupture
1586 forces exceed by far those observed. We demonstrate, in the framework
1587 of models expressed in terms of one-dimensional Langevin equations with
1588 a schematic binding potential, the associated Smoluchowski equations,
1589 and the theory of first passage times, that picosecond to nanosecond
1590 simulation of ligand unbinding requires such strong forces that the
1591 resulting protein-ligand motion proceeds far from the thermally
1592 activated regime of millisecond AFM experiments, and that simulated
1593 unbinding cannot be readily extrapolated to the experimentally observed
1597 @article { jollymore09,
1598 author = AJollymore #" and "# CLethias #" and "# QPeng #" and "# YCao #"
1600 title = "Nanomechanical properties of tenascin-{X} revealed by single-
1601 molecule force spectroscopy",
1608 pages = "1277--1286",
1610 doi = "10.1016/j.jmb.2008.11.038",
1611 url = "http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmb.2008.11.038",
1612 keywords = "Animals;Biomechanics;Cattle;Fibronectins;Kinetics;Microscopy,
1613 Atomic Force;Protein Folding;Protein Structure, Tertiary;Spectrum
1615 abstract = "Tenascin-X is an extracellular matrix protein and binds a
1616 variety of molecules in extracellular matrix and on cell membrane.
1617 Tenascin-X plays important roles in regulating the structure and
1618 mechanical properties of connective tissues. Using single-molecule
1619 atomic force microscopy, we have investigated the mechanical properties
1620 of bovine tenascin-X in detail. Our results indicated that tenascin-X
1621 is an elastic protein and the fibronectin type III (FnIII) domains can
1622 unfold under a stretching force and refold to regain their mechanical
1623 stability upon the removal of the stretching force. All the 30 FnIII
1624 domains of tenascin-X show similar mechanical stability, mechanical
1625 unfolding kinetics, and contour length increment upon domain unfolding,
1626 despite their large sequence diversity. In contrast to the homogeneity
1627 in their mechanical unfolding behaviors, FnIII domains fold at
1628 different rates. Using the 10th FnIII domain of tenascin-X (TNXfn10) as
1629 a model system, we constructed a polyprotein chimera composed of
1630 alternating TNXfn10 and GB1 domains and used atomic force microscopy to
1631 confirm that the mechanical properties of TNXfn10 are consistent with
1632 those of the FnIII domains of tenascin-X. These results lay the
1633 foundation to further study the mechanical properties of individual
1634 FnIII domains and establish the relationship between point mutations
1635 and mechanical phenotypic effect on tenascin-X. Moreover, our results
1636 provided the opportunity to compare the mechanical properties and
1637 design of different forms of tenascins. The comparison between
1638 tenascin-X and tenascin-C revealed interesting common as well as
1639 distinguishing features for mechanical unfolding and folding of
1640 tenascin-C and tenascin-X and will open up new avenues to investigate
1641 the mechanical functions and architectural design of different forms of
1645 @article { juckett93,
1646 author = DAJuckett #" and "# BRosenberg,
1647 title = "Comparison of the Gompertz and Weibull functions as descriptors
1648 for human mortality distributions and their intersections.",
1651 journal = MechAgeingDev,
1656 doi = "10.1016/0047-6374(93)90068-3",
1657 keywords = "Adolescent; Adult; Aged; Aged, 80 and over; Aging; Biometry;
1658 Child; Child, Preschool; Data Interpretation, Statistical; Female;
1659 Humans; Infant; Infant, Newborn; Longitudinal Studies; Male; Middle
1660 Aged; Models, Biological; Models, Statistical; Mortality",
1661 abstract = "The Gompertz and Weibull functions are compared with respect to
1662 goodness-of-fit to human mortality distributions; ability to describe
1663 mortality curve intersections; and, parameter interpretation. The
1664 Gompertz function is shown to be a better descriptor for 'all-causes'
1665 of deaths and combined disease categories while the Weibull function is
1666 shown to be a better descriptor of purer, single causes-of-death. A
1667 modified form of the Weibull function maps directly to the inherent
1668 degrees of freedom of human mortality distributions while the Gompertz
1669 function does not. Intersections in the old-age tails of mortality are
1670 explored in the context of both functions and, in particular, the
1671 relationship between distribution intersections, and the Gompertz
1672 ln[R0] versus alpha regression is examined. Evidence is also presented
1673 that mortality intersections are fundamental to the survivorship form
1674 and not the rate (hazard) form. Finally, comparisons are made to the
1675 parameter estimates in recent longitudinal Gompertzian analyses and the
1676 probable errors in those analyses are discussed.",
1677 note = "Nice table of various functions associated with Gompertz and
1681 @article { kellermayer97,
1682 author = MSZKellermayer #" and "# SBSmith #" and "# HLGranzier #" and "#
1684 title = "Folding-unfolding transitions in single titin molecules
1685 characterized with laser tweezers",
1692 pages = "1112--1116",
1694 keywords = "Amino Acid
1695 Sequence;Elasticity;Entropy;Immunoglobulins;Lasers;Models,
1696 Chemical;Muscle Contraction;Muscle Proteins;Muscle Relaxation;Muscle,
1697 Skeletal;Protein Denaturation;Protein Folding;Protein Kinases;Stress,
1699 abstract = "Titin, a giant filamentous polypeptide, is believed to play a
1700 fundamental role in maintaining sarcomeric structural integrity and
1701 developing what is known as passive force in muscle. Measurements of
1702 the force required to stretch a single molecule revealed that titin
1703 behaves as a highly nonlinear entropic spring. The molecule unfolds in
1704 a high-force transition beginning at 20 to 30 piconewtons and refolds
1705 in a low-force transition at approximately 2.5 piconewtons. A fraction
1706 of the molecule (5 to 40 percent) remains permanently unfolded,
1707 behaving as a wormlike chain with a persistence length (a measure of
1708 the chain's bending rigidity) of 20 angstroms. Force hysteresis arises
1709 from a difference between the unfolding and refolding kinetics of the
1710 molecule relative to the stretch and release rates in the experiments,
1711 respectively. Scaling the molecular data up to sarcomeric dimensions
1712 reproduced many features of the passive force versus extension curve of
1717 author = WTKing #" and "# GYang,
1718 title = "Effects of Cantilever Stiffness on Unfolding Force in {AFM}
1727 author = WTKing #" and "# MSu #" and "# GYang,
1728 title = "{M}onte {C}arlo simulation of mechanical unfolding of proteins
1729 based on a simple two-state model",
1736 doi = "10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2009.12.001",
1737 url = "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6T7J-4XWMND2-1/2/7ef768562b4157fc201d450553e5de5e",
1738 keywords = "Atomic force microscopy;Mechanical unfolding;Monte Carlo
1739 simulation;Worm-like chain;Single molecule methods",
1740 abstract = "Single molecule methods are becoming routine biophysical
1741 techniques for studying biological macromolecules. In mechanical
1742 unfolding of proteins, an externally applied force is used to induce
1743 the unfolding of individual protein molecules. Such experiments have
1744 revealed novel information that has significantly enhanced our
1745 understanding of the function and folding mechanisms of several types
1746 of proteins. To obtain information on the unfolding kinetics and the
1747 free energy landscape of the protein molecule from mechanical unfolding
1748 data, a Monte Carlo simulation based on a simple two-state kinetic
1749 model is often used. In this paper, we provide a detailed description
1750 of the procedure to perform such simulations and discuss the
1751 approximations and assumptions involved. We show that the appearance of
1752 the force versus extension curves from mechanical unfolding of proteins
1753 is affected by a variety of experimental parameters, such as the length
1754 of the protein polymer and the force constant of the cantilever. We
1755 also analyze the errors associated with different methods of data
1756 pooling and present a quantitative measure of how well the simulation
1757 results fit experimental data. These findings will be helpful in
1758 experimental design, artifact identification, and data analysis for
1759 single molecule studies of various proteins using the mechanical
1763 @article { kleiner07,
1764 author = AKleiner #" and "# EShakhnovich,
1765 title = "The mechanical unfolding of ubiquitin through all-atom Monte Carlo
1766 simulation with a Go-type potential.",
1773 pages = "2054--2061",
1775 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.106.081257",
1776 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/92/6/2054",
1777 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/full/92/6/2054",
1778 keywords = "Computer Simulation; Models, Chemical; Models, Molecular;
1779 Models, Statistical; Monte Carlo Method; Motion; Protein Conformation;
1780 Protein Denaturation; Protein Folding; Ubiquitin",
1781 abstract = "The mechanical unfolding of proteins under a stretching force
1782 has an important role in living systems and is a logical extension of
1783 the more general protein folding problem. Recent advances in
1784 experimental methodology have allowed the stretching of single
1785 molecules, thus rendering this process ripe for computational study. We
1786 use all-atom Monte Carlo simulation with a G?-type potential to study
1787 the mechanical unfolding pathway of ubiquitin. A detailed, robust,
1788 well-defined pathway is found, confirming existing results in this vein
1789 though using a different model. Additionally, we identify the protein's
1790 fundamental stabilizing secondary structure interactions in the
1791 presence of a stretching force and show that this fundamental
1792 stabilizing role does not persist in the absence of mechanical stress.
1793 The apparent success of simulation methods in studying ubiquitin's
1794 mechanical unfolding pathway indicates their potential usefulness for
1795 future study of the stretching of other proteins and the relationship
1796 between protein structure and the response to mechanical deformation."
1799 @article { klimov00,
1800 author = DKKlimov #" and "# DThirumalai,
1801 title = "{Native topology determines force-induced unfolding pathways in
1802 globular proteins}",
1809 pages = "7254--7259",
1811 doi = "10.1073/pnas.97.13.7254",
1812 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/13/7254.pdf",
1813 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/13/7254",
1814 keywords = "Animals; Humans; Protein Folding; Proteins; Spectrin",
1815 abstract = "Single-molecule manipulation techniques reveal that stretching
1816 unravels individually folded domains in the muscle protein titin and
1817 the extracellular matrix protein tenascin. These elastic proteins
1818 contain tandem repeats of folded domains with beta-sandwich
1819 architecture. Herein, we propose by stretching two model sequences (S1
1820 and S2) with four-stranded beta-barrel topology that unfolding forces
1821 and pathways in folded domains can be predicted by using only the
1822 structure of the native state. Thermal refolding of S1 and S2 in the
1823 absence of force proceeds in an all-or-none fashion. In contrast, phase
1824 diagrams in the force-temperature (f,T) plane and steered Langevin
1825 dynamics studies of these sequences, which differ in the native
1826 registry of the strands, show that S1 unfolds in an allor-none fashion,
1827 whereas unfolding of S2 occurs via an obligatory intermediate. Force-
1828 induced unfolding is determined by the native topology. After proving
1829 that the simulation results for S1 and S2 can be calculated by using
1830 native topology alone, we predict the order of unfolding events in Ig
1831 domain (Ig27) and two fibronectin III type domains ((9)FnIII and
1832 (10)FnIII). The calculated unfolding pathways for these proteins, the
1833 location of the transition states, and the pulling speed dependence of
1834 the unfolding forces reflect the differences in the way the strands are
1835 arranged in the native states. We also predict the mechanisms of force-
1836 induced unfolding of the coiled-coil spectrin (a three-helix bundle
1837 protein) for all 20 structures deposited in the Protein Data Bank. Our
1838 approach suggests a natural way to measure the phase diagram in the
1839 (f,C) plane, where C is the concentration of denaturants.",
1840 note = "Simulated unfolding timescales for Ig27-like S1 and S2 domains"
1843 @article { kosztin06,
1844 author = IKosztin #" and "# BBarz #" and "# LJanosi,
1845 title = "Calculating potentials of mean force and diffusion coefficients
1846 from nonequilibrium processes without Jarzynski's equality.",
1850 journal = JChemPhys,
1854 doi = "10.1063/1.2166379",
1855 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?JCPSA6/124/064106/1"
1858 @article { kramers40,
1860 title = "Brownian motion in a field of force and the diffusion model of
1861 chemical reactions.",
1869 doi = "10.1016/S0031-8914(40)90098-2",
1870 url = "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6X42-4CB752H-3G/1/1d9e8dc558b822877c9e1ad55bb08831",
1871 abstract = "A particle which is caught in a potential hole and which,
1872 through the shuttling action of Brownian motion, can escape over a
1873 potential barrier yields a suitable model for elucidating the
1874 applicability of the transition state method for calculating the rate
1875 of chemical reactions.",
1876 note = "Seminal paper on thermally activated barrier crossings."
1880 author = KKroy #" and "# JGlaser,
1881 title = "The glassy wormlike chain",
1887 doi = "10.1088/1367-2630/9/11/416",
1888 eprint = "http://www.iop.org/EJ/article/1367-2630/9/11/416/njp7_11_416.pdf",
1889 url = "http://stacks.iop.org/1367-2630/9/416",
1890 abstract = "We introduce a new model for the dynamics of a wormlike chain
1891 (WLC) in an environment that gives rise to a rough free energy
1892 landscape, which we name the glassy WLC. It is obtained from the common
1893 WLC by an exponential stretching of the relaxation spectrum of its
1894 long-wavelength eigenmodes, controlled by a single parameter
1895 \\boldsymbol{\\cal E} . Predictions for pertinent observables such as
1896 the dynamic structure factor and the microrheological susceptibility
1897 exhibit the characteristics of soft glassy rheology and compare
1898 favourably with experimental data for reconstituted cytoskeletal
1899 networks and live cells. We speculate about the possible microscopic
1900 origin of the stretching, implications for the nonlinear rheology, and
1901 the potential physiological significance of our results.",
1902 note = "Has short section on WLC relaxation time in the weakly bending
1906 @article { labeit03,
1907 author = DLabeit #" and "# KWatanabe #" and "# CWitt #" and "# HFujita #"
1908 and "# YWu #" and "# SLahmers #" and "# TFunck #" and "# SLabeit #" and
1910 title = "Calcium-dependent molecular spring elements in the giant protein
1916 pages = "13716--13721",
1917 doi = "10.1073/pnas.2235652100",
1918 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/23/13716.pdf",
1919 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/23/13716",
1920 abstract = "Titin (also known as connectin) is a giant protein with a wide
1921 range of cellular functions, including providing muscle cells with
1922 elasticity. Its physiological extension is largely derived from the
1923 PEVK segment, rich in proline (P), glutamate (E), valine (V), and
1924 lysine (K) residues. We studied recombinant PEVK molecules containing
1925 the two conserved elements: {approx}28-residue PEVK repeats and E-rich
1926 motifs. Single molecule experiments revealed that calcium-induced
1927 conformational changes reduce the bending rigidity of the PEVK
1928 fragments, and site-directed mutagenesis identified four glutamate
1929 residues in the E-rich motif that was studied (exon 129), as critical
1930 for this process. Experiments with muscle fibers showed that titin-
1931 based tension is calcium responsive. We propose that the PEVK segment
1932 contains E-rich motifs that render titin a calcium-dependent molecular
1933 spring that adapts to the physiological state of the cell."
1937 author = HLi #" and "# AFOberhauser #" and "# SBFowler #" and "# JClarke
1938 #" and "# JMFernandez,
1939 title = "{Atomic force microscopy reveals the mechanical design of a
1945 pages = "6527--6531",
1946 doi = "10.1073/pnas.120048697",
1947 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/12/6527.pdf",
1948 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/12/6527",
1953 author = HLi #" and "# AFOberhauser #" and "# SDRedick #" and "#
1954 MCarrion-Vazquez #" and "# HPErickson #" and "# JMFernandez,
1955 title = "{Multiple conformations of PEVK proteins detected by single-
1956 molecule techniques}",
1961 pages = "10682--10686",
1962 doi = "10.1073/pnas.191189098",
1963 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/19/10682.pdf",
1964 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/19/10682",
1965 abstract = "An important component of muscle elasticity is the PEVK region
1966 of titin, so named because of the preponderance of these amino acids.
1967 However, the PEVK region, similar to other elastomeric proteins, is
1968 thought to form a random coil and therefore its structure cannot be
1969 determined by standard techniques. Here we combine single-molecule
1970 electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy to examine the
1971 conformations of the human cardiac titin PEVK region. In contrast to a
1972 simple random coil, we have found that cardiac PEVK shows a wide range
1973 of elastic conformations with end-to-end distances ranging from 9 to 24
1974 nm and persistence lengths from 0.4 to 2.5 nm. Individual PEVK
1975 molecules retained their distinctive elastic conformations through many
1976 stretch-relaxation cycles, consistent with the view that these PEVK
1977 conformers cannot be interconverted by force. The multiple elastic
1978 conformations of cardiac PEVK may result from varying degrees of
1979 proline isomerization. The single-molecule techniques demonstrated here
1980 may help elucidate the conformation of other proteins that lack a well-
1985 author = MSLi #" and "# CKHu #" and "# DKKlimov #" and "# DThirumalai,
1986 title = "{Multiple stepwise refolding of immunoglobulin domain I27 upon
1987 force quench depends on initial conditions}",
1993 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0503758103",
1994 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/1/93.pdf",
1995 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/1/93",
1996 abstract = "Mechanical folding trajectories for polyproteins starting from
1997 initially stretched conformations generated by single-molecule atomic
1998 force microscopy experiments [Fernandez, J. M. & Li, H. (2004) Science
1999 303, 1674-1678] show that refolding, monitored by the end-to-end
2000 distance, occurs in distinct multiple stages. To clarify the molecular
2001 nature of folding starting from stretched conformations, we have probed
2002 the folding dynamics, upon force quench, for the single I27 domain from
2003 the muscle protein titin by using a C{alpha}-Go model. Upon temperature
2004 quench, collapse and folding of I27 are synchronous. In contrast,
2005 refolding from stretched initial structures not only increases the
2006 folding and collapse time scales but also decouples the two kinetic
2007 processes. The increase in the folding times is associated primarily
2008 with the stretched state to compact random coil transition.
2009 Surprisingly, force quench does not alter the nature of the refolding
2010 kinetics, but merely increases the height of the free-energy folding
2011 barrier. Force quench refolding times scale as f1.gif, where {Delta}xf
2012 {approx} 0.6 nm is the location of the average transition state along
2013 the reaction coordinate given by end-to-end distance. We predict that
2014 {tau}F and the folding mechanism can be dramatically altered by the
2015 initial and/or final values of force. The implications of our results
2016 for design and analysis of experiments are discussed."
2020 author = WLiu #" and "# VMontana #" and "# ERChapman #" and "# UMohideen
2022 title = "{Botulinum toxin type B micromechanosensor}",
2027 pages = "13621--13625",
2028 doi = "10.1073/pnas.2233819100",
2029 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/23/13621.pdf",
2030 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/23/13621",
2031 abstract = "Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) types A, B, E, and F are toxic to
2032 humans; early and rapid detection is essential for adequate medical
2033 treatment. Presently available tests for detection of BoNTs, although
2034 sensitive, require hours to days. We report a BoNT-B sensor whose
2035 properties allow detection of BoNT-B within minutes. The technique
2036 relies on the detection of an agarose bead detachment from the tip of a
2037 micromachined cantilever resulting from BoNT-B action on its
2038 substratum, the synaptic protein synaptobrevin 2, attached to the
2039 beads. The mechanical resonance frequency of the cantilever is
2040 monitored for the detection. To suspend the bead off the cantilever we
2041 use synaptobrevin's molecular interaction with another synaptic
2042 protein, syntaxin 1A, that was deposited onto the cantilever tip.
2043 Additionally, this bead detachment technique is general and can be used
2044 in any displacement reaction, such as in receptor-ligand pairs, where
2045 the introduction of one chemical leads to the displacement of another.
2046 The technique is of broad interest and will find uses outside
2050 @article { makarov01,
2051 author = DEMakarov #" and "# PKHansma #" and "# HMetiu,
2052 title = "Kinetic Monte Carlo simulation of titin unfolding",
2058 pages = "9663--9673",
2060 doi = "10.1063/1.1369622",
2061 eprint = "http://hansmalab.physics.ucsb.edu/pdf/297%20-%20Makarov,%20D.E._J.Chem.Phys._2001.pdf",
2062 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?JCP/114/9663/1",
2063 keywords = "proteins; hydrogen bonds; digital simulation; Monte Carlo
2064 methods; molecular biophysics; intramolecular mechanics;
2065 macromolecules; atomic force microscopy"
2069 author = JFMarko #" and "# EDSiggia,
2070 title = "Stretching {DNA}",
2073 journal = Macromolecules,
2076 pages = "8759--8770",
2078 eprint = "http://pubs.acs.org/cgi-bin/archive.cgi/mamobx/1995/28/i26/pdf/ma00130a008.pdf",
2080 "http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/ma00130a008",
2082 note = "Derivation of the Worm-like Chain interpolation function."
2085 @article { marszalek98,
2086 author = PEMarszalek #" and "# AFOberhauser #" and "# YPPang #" and "#
2088 title = "Polysaccharide elasticity governed by chair-boat transitions of
2089 the glucopyranose ring.",
2098 doi = "10.1038/25322",
2099 keywords = "Amylose;Dextrans;Elasticity;Glucans;Glucose;Microscopy, Atomic
2100 Force;Oxidation-Reduction;Polysaccharides",
2101 abstract = "Many common, biologically important polysaccharides contain
2102 pyranose rings made of five carbon atoms and one oxygen atom. They
2103 occur in a variety of cellular structures, where they are often
2104 subjected to considerable tensile stress. The polysaccharides are
2105 thought to respond to this stress by elastic deformation, but the
2106 underlying molecular rearrangements allowing such a response remain
2107 poorly understood. It is typically assumed, however, that the pyranose
2108 ring structure is inelastic and locked into a chair-like conformation.
2109 Here we describe single-molecule force measurements on individual
2110 polysaccharides that identify the pyranose rings as the structural unit
2111 controlling the molecule's elasticity. In particular, we find that the
2112 enthalpic component of the polymer elasticity of amylose, dextran and
2113 pullulan is eliminated once their pyranose rings are cleaved. We
2114 interpret these observations as indicating that the elasticity of the
2115 three polysaccharides results from a force-induced elongation of the
2116 ring structure and a final transition from a chair-like to a boat-like
2117 conformation. We expect that the force-induced deformation of pyranose
2118 rings reported here plays an important role in accommodating mechanical
2119 stresses and modulating ligand binding in biological systems."
2122 @article { marszalek02,
2123 author = PEMarszalek #" and "# HLi #" and "# AFOberhauser #" and "#
2125 title = "{Chair-boat transitions in single polysaccharide molecules
2126 observed with force-ramp AFM}",
2131 pages = "4278--4283",
2132 doi = "10.1073/pnas.072435699",
2133 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/99/7/4278.pdf",
2134 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/7/4278",
2135 abstract = "Under a stretching force, the sugar ring of polysaccharide
2136 molecules switches from the chair to the boat-like or inverted chair
2137 conformation. This conformational change can be observed by stretching
2138 single polysaccharide molecules with an atomic force microscope. In
2139 those early experiments, the molecules were stretched at a constant
2140 rate while the resulting force changed over wide ranges. However,
2141 because the rings undergo force-dependent transitions, an experimental
2142 arrangement where the force is the free variable introduces an
2143 undesirable level of complexity in the results. Here we demonstrate the
2144 use of force-ramp atomic force microscopy to capture the conformational
2145 changes in single polysaccharide molecules. Force-ramp atomic force
2146 microscopy readily captures the ring transitions under conditions where
2147 the entropic elasticity of the molecule is separated from its
2148 conformational transitions, enabling a quantitative analysis of the
2149 data with a simple two-state model. This analysis directly provides the
2150 physico-chemical characteristics of the ring transitions such as the
2151 width of the energy barrier, the relative energy of the conformers, and
2152 their enthalpic elasticity. Our experiments enhance the ability of
2153 single-molecule force spectroscopy to make high-resolution measurements
2154 of the conformations of single polysaccharide molecules under a
2155 stretching force, making an important addition to polysaccharide
2160 author = CCMello #" and "# DBarrick,
2161 title = "An experimentally determined protein folding energy landscape.",
2168 pages = "14102--14107",
2170 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0403386101",
2171 keywords = "Animals; Ankyrin Repeat; Circular Dichroism; Drosophila
2172 Proteins; Drosophila melanogaster; Gene Deletion; Models, Chemical;
2173 Models, Molecular; Protein Denaturation; Protein Folding; Protein
2174 Structure, Tertiary; Spectrometry, Fluorescence; Thermodynamics; Urea",
2175 abstract = "Energy landscapes have been used to conceptually describe and
2176 model protein folding but have been difficult to measure
2177 experimentally, in large part because of the myriad of partly folded
2178 protein conformations that cannot be isolated and thermodynamically
2179 characterized. Here we experimentally determine a detailed energy
2180 landscape for protein folding. We generated a series of overlapping
2181 constructs containing subsets of the seven ankyrin repeats of the
2182 Drosophila Notch receptor, a protein domain whose linear arrangement of
2183 modular structural units can be fragmented without disrupting
2184 structure. To a good approximation, stabilities of each construct can
2185 be described as a sum of energy terms associated with each repeat. The
2186 magnitude of each energy term indicates that each repeat is
2187 intrinsically unstable but is strongly stabilized by interactions with
2188 its nearest neighbors. These linear energy terms define an equilibrium
2189 free energy landscape, which shows an early free energy barrier and
2190 suggests preferred low-energy routes for folding."
2193 @article { mickler07,
2194 author = MMickler #" and "# RIDima #" and "# HDietz #" and "# CHyeon #"
2195 and "# DThirumalai #" and "# MRief,
2196 title = "Revealing the bifurcation in the unfolding pathways of {GFP} by
2197 using single-molecule experiments and simulations",
2202 pages = "20268--20273",
2203 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0705458104",
2204 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/51/20268.pdf",
2205 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/51/20268",
2206 keywords = "AFM experiments, coarse-grained simulations, cross-link
2207 mutants, pathway bifurcation, plasticity of energy landscape",
2208 abstract = "Nanomanipulation of biomolecules by using single-molecule
2209 methods and computer simulations has made it possible to visualize the
2210 energy landscape of biomolecules and the structures that are sampled
2211 during the folding process. We use simulations and single-molecule
2212 force spectroscopy to map the complex energy landscape of GFP that is
2213 used as a marker in cell biology and biotechnology. By engineering
2214 internal disulfide bonds at selected positions in the GFP structure,
2215 mechanical unfolding routes are precisely controlled, thus allowing us
2216 to infer features of the energy landscape of the wild-type GFP. To
2217 elucidate the structures of the unfolding pathways and reveal the
2218 multiple unfolding routes, the experimental results are complemented
2219 with simulations of a self-organized polymer (SOP) model of GFP. The
2220 SOP representation of proteins, which is a coarse-grained description
2221 of biomolecules, allows us to perform forced-induced simulations at
2222 loading rates and time scales that closely match those used in atomic
2223 force microscopy experiments. By using the combined approach, we show
2224 that forced unfolding of GFP involves a bifurcation in the pathways to
2225 the stretched state. After detachment of an N-terminal {alpha}-helix,
2226 unfolding proceeds along two distinct pathways. In the dominant
2227 pathway, unfolding starts from the detachment of the primary N-terminal
2228 -strand, while in the minor pathway rupture of the last, C-terminal
2229 -strand initiates the unfolding process. The combined approach has
2230 allowed us to map the features of the complex energy landscape of GFP
2231 including a characterization of the structures, albeit at a coarse-
2232 grained level, of the three metastable intermediates.",
2233 note = "Hiccup in unfolding leg corresponds to unfolding intermediate (See
2234 Figure 2). The unfolding timescale in GFP is about 6 ms."
2238 author = RNevo #" and "# CStroh #" and "# FKienberger #" and "# DKaftan #"
2239 and "# VBrumfeld #" and "# MElbaum #" and "# ZReich #" and "#
2241 title = "A molecular switch between alternative conformational states in
2242 the complex of Ran and importin beta1.",
2250 doi = "10.1038/nsb940",
2251 eprint = "http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v10/n7/pdf/nsb940.pdf",
2252 url = "http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v10/n7/abs/nsb940.html",
2253 keywords = "Guanosine Diphosphate; Guanosine Triphosphate; Microscopy,
2254 Atomic Force; Protein Binding; Protein Conformation; beta Karyopherins;
2255 ran GTP-Binding Protein",
2256 abstract = "Several million macromolecules are exchanged each minute
2257 between the nucleus and cytoplasm by receptor-mediated transport. Most
2258 of this traffic is controlled by the small GTPase Ran, which regulates
2259 assembly and disassembly of the receptor-cargo complexes in the
2260 appropriate cellular compartment. Here we applied dynamic force
2261 spectroscopy to study the interaction of Ran with the nuclear import
2262 receptor importin beta1 (impbeta) at the single-molecule level. We
2263 found that the complex alternates between two distinct conformational
2264 states of different adhesion strength. The application of an external
2265 mechanical force shifts equilibrium toward one of these states by
2266 decreasing the height of the interstate activation energy barrier. The
2267 other state can be stabilized by a functional Ran mutant that increases
2268 this barrier. These results support a model whereby functional control
2269 of Ran-impbeta is achieved by a population shift between pre-existing
2270 alternative conformations."
2274 author = RNevo #" and "# VBrumfeld #" and "# MElbaum #" and "#
2275 PHinterdorfer #" and "# ZReich,
2276 title = "Direct discrimination between models of protein activation by
2277 single-molecule force measurements.",
2283 pages = "2630--2634",
2285 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.104.041889",
2286 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/87/4/2630.pdf",
2287 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/87/4/2630",
2288 keywords = "Elasticity; Enzyme Activation; Micromanipulation; Microscopy,
2289 Atomic Force; Models, Chemical; Models, Molecular; Multiprotein
2290 Complexes; Nuclear Proteins; Physical Stimulation; Protein Binding;
2291 Stress, Mechanical; Structure-Activity Relationship; beta Karyopherins;
2292 ran GTP-Binding Protein",
2293 abstract = "The limitations imposed on the analyses of complex chemical and
2294 biological systems by ensemble averaging can be overcome by single-
2295 molecule experiments. Here, we used a single-molecule technique to
2296 discriminate between two generally accepted mechanisms of a key
2297 biological process--the activation of proteins by molecular effectors.
2298 The two mechanisms, namely induced-fit and population-shift, are
2299 normally difficult to discriminate by ensemble approaches. As a model,
2300 we focused on the interaction between the nuclear transport effector,
2301 RanBP1, and two related complexes consisting of the nuclear import
2302 receptor, importin beta, and the GDP- or GppNHp-bound forms of the
2303 small GTPase, Ran. We found that recognition by the effector proceeds
2304 through either an induced-fit or a population-shift mechanism,
2305 depending on the substrate, and that the two mechanisms can be
2306 differentiated by the data."
2310 author = RNevo #" and "# VBrumfeld #" and "# RKapon #" and "#
2311 PHinterdorfer #" and "# ZReich,
2312 title = "Direct measurement of protein energy landscape roughness.",
2320 doi = "10.1038/sj.embor.7400403",
2321 eprint = "http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v6/n5/pdf/7400403.pdf",
2322 url = "http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v6/n5/abs/7400403.html",
2323 keywords = "Models, Molecular; Protein Binding; Protein Folding; Spectrum
2324 Analysis; Thermodynamics; beta Karyopherins; ran GTP-Binding Protein",
2325 abstract = "The energy landscape of proteins is thought to have an
2326 intricate, corrugated structure. Such roughness should have important
2327 consequences on the folding and binding kinetics of proteins, as well
2328 as on their equilibrium fluctuations. So far, no direct measurement of
2329 protein energy landscape roughness has been made. Here, we combined a
2330 recent theory with single-molecule dynamic force spectroscopy
2331 experiments to extract the overall energy scale of roughness epsilon
2332 for a complex consisting of the small GTPase Ran and the nuclear
2333 transport receptor importin-beta. The results gave epsilon > 5k(B)T,
2334 indicating a bumpy energy surface, which is consistent with the ability
2335 of importin-beta to accommodate multiple conformations and to interact
2336 with different, structurally distinct ligands.",
2337 note = "Applies H&T\cite{hyeon03} to ligand-receptor binding.",
2338 project = "Energy Landscape Roughness"
2342 author = SPNg #" and "# KSBillings #" and "# TOhashi #" and "# MDAllen #"
2343 and "# RBBest #" and "# LGRandles #" and "# HPErickson #" and "#
2345 title = "{Designing an extracellular matrix protein with enhanced
2346 mechanical stability}",
2351 pages = "9633--9637",
2352 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0609901104",
2353 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/23/9633.pdf",
2354 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/23/9633",
2355 abstract = "The extracellular matrix proteins tenascin and fibronectin
2356 experience significant mechanical forces in vivo. Both contain a number
2357 of tandem repeating homologous fibronectin type III (fnIII) domains,
2358 and atomic force microscopy experiments have demonstrated that the
2359 mechanical strength of these domains can vary significantly. Previous
2360 work has shown that mutations in the core of an fnIII domain from human
2361 tenascin (TNfn3) reduce the unfolding force of that domain
2362 significantly: The composition of the core is apparently crucial to the
2363 mechanical stability of these proteins. Based on these results, we have
2364 used rational redesign to increase the mechanical stability of the 10th
2365 fnIII domain of human fibronectin, FNfn10, which is directly involved
2366 in integrin binding. The hydrophobic core of FNfn10 was replaced with
2367 that of the homologous, mechanically stronger TNfn3 domain. Despite the
2368 extensive substitution, FNoTNc retains both the three-dimensional
2369 structure and the cell adhesion activity of FNfn10. Atomic force
2370 microscopy experiments reveal that the unfolding forces of the
2371 engineered protein FNoTNc increase by {approx}20% to match those of
2372 TNfn3. Thus, we have specifically designed a protein with increased
2373 mechanical stability. Our results demonstrate that core engineering can
2374 be used to change the mechanical strength of proteins while retaining
2375 functional surface interactions."
2379 author = RANome #" and "# JMZhao #" and "# WDHoff #" and "# NFScherer,
2380 title = "Axis-dependent anisotropy in protein unfolding from integrated
2381 nonequilibrium single-molecule experiments, analysis, and simulation",
2388 pages = "20799--20804",
2390 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0701281105",
2391 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/52/20799.pdf",
2392 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/52/20799",
2393 keywords = "Anisotropy; Bacterial Proteins; Biophysics; Computer
2394 Simulation; Cysteine; Halorhodospira halophila; Hydrogen Bonding;
2395 Kinetics; Luminescent Proteins; Microscopy, Atomic Force; Molecular
2396 Conformation; Protein Binding; Protein Conformation; Protein
2397 Denaturation; Protein Folding; Protein Structure, Secondary",
2398 abstract = "We present a comprehensive study that integrates experimental
2399 and theoretical nonequilibrium techniques to map energy landscapes
2400 along well defined pull-axis specific coordinates to elucidate
2401 mechanisms of protein unfolding. Single-molecule force-extension
2402 experiments along two different axes of photoactive yellow protein
2403 combined with nonequilibrium statistical mechanical analysis and
2404 atomistic simulation reveal energetic and mechanistic anisotropy.
2405 Steered molecular dynamics simulations and free-energy curves
2406 constructed from the experimental results reveal that unfolding along
2407 one axis exhibits a transition-state-like feature where six hydrogen
2408 bonds break simultaneously with weak interactions observed during
2409 further unfolding. The other axis exhibits a constant (unpeaked) force
2410 profile indicative of a noncooperative transition, with enthalpic
2411 (e.g., H-bond) interactions being broken throughout the unfolding
2412 process. Striking qualitative agreement was found between the force-
2413 extension curves derived from steered molecular dynamics calculations
2414 and the equilibrium free-energy curves obtained by JarzynskiHummerSzabo
2415 analysis of the nonequilibrium work data. The anisotropy persists
2416 beyond pulling distances of more than twice the initial dimensions of
2417 the folded protein, indicating a rich energy landscape to the
2418 mechanically fully unfolded state. Our findings challenge the notion
2419 that cooperative unfolding is a universal feature in protein
2423 @article { nummela07,
2424 author = JNummela #" and "# IAndricioaei,
2425 title = "{Exact Low-Force Kinetics from High-Force Single-Molecule
2431 pages = "3373-3381",
2432 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.107.111658",
2433 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/93/10/3373.pdf",
2434 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/93/10/3373",
2435 abstract = "Mechanical forces play a key role in crucial cellular processes
2436 involving force-bearing biomolecules, as well as in novel single-
2437 molecule pulling experiments. We present an exact method that enables
2438 one to extrapolate, to low (or zero) forces, entire time-correlation
2439 functions and kinetic rate constants from the conformational dynamics
2440 either simulated numerically or measured experimentally at a single,
2441 relatively higher, external force. The method has twofold relevance:
2442 1), to extrapolate the kinetics at physiological force conditions from
2443 molecular dynamics trajectories generated at higher forces that
2444 accelerate conformational transitions; and 2), to extrapolate unfolding
2445 rates from experimental force-extension single-molecule curves. The
2446 theoretical formalism, based on stochastic path integral weights of
2447 Langevin trajectories, is presented for the constant-force, constant
2448 loading rate, and constant-velocity modes of the pulling experiments.
2449 For the first relevance, applications are described for simulating the
2450 conformational isomerization of alanine dipeptide; and for the second
2451 relevance, the single-molecule pulling of RNA is considered. The
2452 ability to assign a weight to each trace in the single-molecule data
2453 also suggests a means to quantitatively compare unfolding pathways
2454 under different conditions."
2457 @article { oberhauser98,
2458 author = AFOberhauser #" and "# PEMarszalek #" and "# HPErickson #" and "#
2460 title = "The molecular elasticity of the extracellular matrix protein
2470 doi = "10.1038/30270",
2471 eprint = "http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v393/n6681/pdf/393181a0.pdf",
2472 url = "http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v393/n6681/abs/393181a0.html",
2473 keywords = "Alternative Splicing;Binding
2474 Sites;Elasticity;Fibronectins;Humans;Microscopy, Atomic Force;Monte
2475 Carlo Method;Peptide Fragments;Protein Folding;Recombinant
2477 abstract = "Extracellular matrix proteins are thought to provide a rigid
2478 mechanical anchor that supports and guides migrating and rolling cells.
2479 Here we examine the mechanical properties of the extracellular matrix
2480 protein tenascin by using atomic-force-microscopy techniques. Our
2481 results indicate that tenascin is an elastic protein. Single molecules
2482 of tenascin could be stretched to several times their resting length.
2483 Force-extension curves showed a saw-tooth pattern, with peaks of force
2484 at 137pN. These peaks were approximately 25 nm apart. Similar results
2485 have been obtained by study of titin. We also found similar results by
2486 studying recombinant tenascin fragments encompassing the 15 fibronectin
2487 type III domains of tenascin. This indicates that the extensibility of
2488 tenascin may be due to the stretch-induced unfolding of its fibronectin
2489 type III domains. Refolding of tenascin after stretching, observed when
2490 the force was reduced to near zero, showed a double-exponential
2491 recovery with time constants of 42 domains refolded per second and 0.5
2492 domains per second. The former speed of refolding is more than twice as
2493 fast as any previously reported speed of refolding of a fibronectin
2494 type III domain. We suggest that the extensibility of the modular
2495 fibronectin type III region may be important in allowing
2496 tenascin-ligand bonds to persist over long extensions. These properties
2497 of fibronectin type III modules may be of widespread use in
2498 extracellular proteins containing such domain."
2501 @article { oberhauser01,
2502 author = AFOberhauser #" and "# PKHansma #" and "# MCarrion-Vazquez #" and
2504 title = "{Stepwise unfolding of titin under force-clamp atomic force
2511 doi = "10.1073/pnas.021321798",
2512 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/98/2/468.pdf",
2513 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/98/2/468",
2517 @article { olshansky97,
2518 author = SJOlshansky #" and "# BACarnes,
2519 title = "Ever since Gompertz.",
2522 journal = Demography,
2527 url = "http://www.jstor.org/stable/2061656",
2528 keywords = "Aging; Biometry; History, 19th Century; History, 20th Century;
2529 Humans; Life Tables; Mortality; Sexual Maturation",
2530 abstract = "In 1825 British actuary Benjamin Gompertz made a simple but
2531 important observation that a law of geometrical progression pervades
2532 large portions of different tables of mortality for humans. The simple
2533 formula he derived describing the exponential rise in death rates
2534 between sexual maturity and old age is commonly, referred to as the
2535 Gompertz equation-a formula that remains a valuable tool in demography
2536 and in other scientific disciplines. Gompertz's observation of a
2537 mathematical regularity in the life table led him to believe in the
2538 presence of a low of mortality that explained why common age patterns
2539 of death exist. This law of mortality has captured the attention of
2540 scientists for the past 170 years because it was the first among what
2541 are now several reliable empirical tools for describing the dying-out
2542 process of many living organisms during a significant portion of their
2543 life spans. In this paper we review the literature on Gompertz's law of
2544 mortality and discuss the importance of his observations and insights
2545 in light of research on aging that has taken place since then.",
2546 note = "Hardly any actual math, but the references might be interesting.
2547 I'll look into them if I have the time. Available through several
2551 @article { onuchic96,
2552 author = JNOnuchic #" and "# NDSocci #" and "# ZLuthey-Schulten #" and "#
2554 title = "Protein folding funnels: the nature of the transition state
2562 keywords = "Animals; Cytochrome c Group; Humans; Infant; Protein Folding",
2563 abstract = "BACKGROUND: Energy landscape theory predicts that the folding
2564 funnel for a small fast-folding alpha-helical protein will have a
2565 transition state half-way to the native state. Estimates of the
2566 position of the transition state along an appropriate reaction
2567 coordinate can be obtained from linear free energy relationships
2568 observed for folding and unfolding rate constants as a function of
2569 denaturant concentration. The experimental results of Huang and Oas for
2570 lambda repressor, Fersht and collaborators for C12, and Gray and
2571 collaborators for cytochrome c indicate a free energy barrier midway
2572 between the folded and unfolded regions. This barrier arises from an
2573 entropic bottleneck for the folding process. RESULTS: In keeping with
2574 the experimental results, lattice simulations based on the folding
2575 funnel description show that the transition state is not just a single
2576 conformation, but rather an ensemble of a relatively large number of
2577 configurations that can be described by specific values of one or a few
2578 order parameters (e.g. the fraction of native contacts). Analysis of
2579 this transition state or bottleneck region from our lattice simulations
2580 and from atomistic models for small alpha-helical proteins by Boczko
2581 and Brooks indicates a broad distribution for native contact
2582 participation in the transition state ensemble centered around 50\%.
2583 Importantly, however, the lattice-simulated transition state ensemble
2584 does include some particularly hot contacts, as seen in the
2585 experiments, which have been termed by others a folding nucleus.
2586 CONCLUSIONS: Linear free energy relations provide a crude spectroscopy
2587 of the transition state, allowing us to infer the values of a reaction
2588 coordinate based on the fraction of native contacts. This bottleneck
2589 may be thought of as a collection of delocalized nuclei where different
2590 native contacts will have different degrees of participation. The
2591 agreement between the experimental results and the theoretical
2592 predictions provides strong support for the landscape analysis."
2596 author = CAOpitz #" and "# MKulke #" and "# MCLeake #" and "# CNeagoe #"
2597 and "# HHinssen #" and "# RJHajjar #" and "# WALinke,
2598 title = "{Damped elastic recoil of the titin spring in myofibrils of human
2604 pages = "12688--12693",
2605 doi = "10.1073/pnas.2133733100",
2606 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/22/12688.pdf",
2607 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/100/22/12688",
2608 abstract = "The giant protein titin functions as a molecular spring in
2609 muscle and is responsible for most of the passive tension of
2610 myocardium. Because the titin spring is extended during diastolic
2611 stretch, it will recoil elastically during systole and potentially may
2612 influence the overall shortening behavior of cardiac muscle. Here,
2613 titin elastic recoil was quantified in single human heart myofibrils by
2614 using a high-speed charge-coupled device-line camera and a
2615 nanonewtonrange force sensor. Application of a slack-test protocol
2616 revealed that the passive shortening velocity (Vp) of nonactivated
2617 cardiomyofibrils depends on: (i) initial sarcomere length, (ii)
2618 release-step amplitude, and (iii) temperature. Selective digestion of
2619 titin, with low doses of trypsin, decelerated myofibrillar passive
2620 recoil and eventually stopped it. Selective extraction of actin
2621 filaments with a Ca2+-independent gelsolin fragment greatly reduced the
2622 dependency of Vp on release-step size and temperature. These results
2623 are explained by the presence of viscous forces opposing myofibrillar
2624 passive recoil that are caused mainly by weak actin-titin interactions.
2625 Thus, Vp is determined by two distinct factors: titin elastic recoil
2626 and internal viscous drag forces. The recoil could be modeled as that
2627 of a damped entropic spring consisting of independent worm-like chains.
2628 The functional importance of myofibrillar elastic recoil was addressed
2629 by comparing instantaneous Vp to unloaded shortening velocity, which
2630 was measured in demembranated, fully Ca2+-activated, human cardiac
2631 fibers. Titin-driven passive recoil was much faster than active
2632 unloaded shortening velocity in early phases of isotonic contraction.
2633 Damped myofibrillar elastic recoil could help accelerate active
2634 contraction speed of human myocardium during early systolic
2638 @article { oroudjev02,
2639 author = EOroudjev #" and "# JSoares #" and "# SArcidiacono #" and "#
2640 JBThompson #" and "# SAFossey #" and "# HGHansma,
2641 title = "{Segmented nanofibers of spider dragline silk: Atomic force
2642 microscopy and single-molecule force spectroscopy}",
2647 pages = "6460--6465",
2648 doi = "10.1073/pnas.082526499",
2649 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/99/suppl_2/6460.pdf",
2650 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/99/suppl_2/6460",
2651 abstract = "Despite its remarkable materials properties, the structure of
2652 spider dragline silk has remained unsolved. Results from two probe
2653 microscopy techniques provide new insights into the structure of spider
2654 dragline silk. A soluble synthetic protein from dragline silk
2655 spontaneously forms nanofibers, as observed by atomic force microscopy.
2656 These nanofibers have a segmented substructure. The segment length and
2657 amino acid sequence are consistent with a slab-like shape for
2658 individual silk protein molecules. The height and width of nanofiber
2659 segments suggest a stacking pattern of slab-like molecules in each
2660 nanofiber segment. This stacking pattern produces nano-crystals in an
2661 amorphous matrix, as observed previously by NMR and x-ray diffraction
2662 of spider dragline silk. The possible importance of nanofiber formation
2663 to native silk production is discussed. Force spectra for single
2664 molecules of the silk protein demonstrate that this protein unfolds
2665 through a number of rupture events, indicating a modular substructure
2666 within single silk protein molecules. A minimal unfolding module size
2667 is estimated to be around 14 nm, which corresponds to the extended
2668 length of a single repeated module, 38 amino acids long. The structure
2669 of this spider silk protein is distinctly different from the structures
2670 of other proteins that have been analyzed by single-molecule force
2671 spectroscopy, and the force spectra show correspondingly novel
2676 author = EPaci #" and "# MKarplus,
2677 title = "{Unfolding proteins by external forces and temperature: The
2678 importance of topology and energetics}",
2683 pages = "6521--6526",
2684 doi = "10.1073/pnas.100124597",
2685 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/12/6521.pdf",
2686 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/12/6521"
2690 author = QPeng #" and "# HLi,
2691 title = "{Atomic force microscopy reveals parallel mechanical unfolding
2692 pathways of T4 lysozyme: Evidence for a kinetic partitioning
2698 pages = "1885--1890",
2699 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0706775105",
2700 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/105/6/1885.pdf",
2701 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/105/6/1885",
2702 abstract = "Kinetic partitioning is predicted to be a general mechanism for
2703 proteins to fold into their well defined native three-dimensional
2704 structure from unfolded states following multiple folding pathways.
2705 However, experimental evidence supporting this mechanism is still
2706 limited. By using single-molecule atomic force microscopy, here we
2707 report experimental evidence supporting the kinetic partitioning
2708 mechanism for mechanical unfolding of T4 lysozyme, a small protein
2709 composed of two subdomains. We observed that on stretching from its N
2710 and C termini, T4 lysozyme unfolds by multiple distinct unfolding
2711 pathways: the majority of T4 lysozymes unfold in an all-or-none fashion
2712 by overcoming a dominant unfolding kinetic barrier; and a small
2713 fraction of T4 lysozymes unfold in three-state fashion involving
2714 unfolding intermediate states. The three-state unfolding pathways do
2715 not follow well defined routes, instead they display variability and
2716 diversity in individual unfolding pathways. The unfolding intermediate
2717 states are local energy minima along the mechanical unfolding pathways
2718 and are likely to result from the residual structures present in the
2719 two subdomains after crossing the main unfolding barrier. These results
2720 provide direct evidence for the kinetic partitioning of the mechanical
2721 unfolding pathways of T4 lysozyme, and the complex unfolding behaviors
2722 reflect the stochastic nature of kinetic barrier rupture in mechanical
2723 unfolding processes. Our results demonstrate that single-molecule
2724 atomic force microscopy is an ideal tool to investigate the
2725 folding/unfolding dynamics of complex multimodule proteins that are
2726 otherwise difficult to study using traditional methods."
2730 author = WPress #" and "# STeukolsky #" and "# WVetterling #" and "#
2732 title = "Numerical Recipies in {C}: The Art of Scientific Computing",
2736 address = "New York",
2737 eprint = "http://www.nrbook.com/a/bookcpdf.php",
2738 note = "See sections 12.0, 12.1, 12.3, and 13.4 for a good introduction to
2739 Fourier transforms and power spectrum estimation.",
2740 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
2743 @article { raible04,
2744 author = MRaible #" and "# MEvstigneev #" and "# PReimann #" and "#
2745 FWBartels #" and "# RRos,
2746 title = "Theoretical analysis of dynamic force spectroscopy experiments on
2747 ligand-receptor complexes.",
2751 journal = JBiotechnol,
2756 doi = "10.1016/j.jbiotec.2004.04.017",
2757 keywords = "Binding Sites; Computer Simulation; DNA; DNA-Binding Proteins;
2758 Elasticity; Ligands; Macromolecular Substances; Micromanipulation;
2759 Microscopy, Atomic Force; Models, Chemical; Molecular Biology; Nucleic
2760 Acid Conformation; Physical Stimulation; Protein Binding; Protein
2761 Conformation; Stress, Mechanical",
2762 abstract = "The forced rupture of single chemical bonds in biomolecular
2763 compounds (e.g. ligand-receptor systems) as observed in dynamic force
2764 spectroscopy experiments is addressed. Under the assumption that the
2765 probability of bond rupture depends only on the instantaneously acting
2766 force, a data collapse onto a single master curve is predicted. For
2767 rupture data obtained experimentally by dynamic AFM force spectroscopy
2768 of a ligand-receptor bond between a DNA and a regulatory protein we do
2769 not find such a collapse. We conclude that the above mentioned,
2770 generally accepted assumption is not satisfied and we discuss possible
2774 @article { raible06,
2775 author = MRaible #" and "# MEvstigneev #" and "# FWBartels #" and "#
2776 REckel #" and "# MNguyen-Duong #" and "# RMerkel #" and "# RRos #" and
2777 "# DAnselmetti #" and "# PReimann,
2778 title = "Theoretical analysis of single-molecule force spectroscopy
2779 experiments: heterogeneity of chemical bonds.",
2786 pages = "3851--3864",
2788 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.105.077099",
2789 eprint = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/reprint/90/11/3851.pdf",
2790 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/90/11/3851",
2791 keywords = "Biomechanics; Microscopy, Atomic Force; Models, Molecular;
2792 Statistical Distributions; Thermodynamics",
2793 abstract = "We show that the standard theoretical framework in single-
2794 molecule force spectroscopy has to be extended to consistently describe
2795 the experimental findings. The basic amendment is to take into account
2796 heterogeneity of the chemical bonds via random variations of the force-
2797 dependent dissociation rates. This results in a very good agreement
2798 between theory and rupture data from several different experiments."
2802 author = MRief #" and "# HGrubmuller,
2803 title = "Force spectroscopy of single biomolecules.",
2807 journal = Chemphyschem,
2812 doi = "10.1002/1439-7641(20020315)3:3<255::AID-CPHC255>3.0.CO;2-M",
2813 url = "http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/91016383/abstract",
2814 keywords = "Ligands; Microscopy, Atomic Force; Polysaccharides; Protein
2815 Denaturation; Proteins",
2816 abstract = "Many processes in the body are effected and regulated by highly
2817 specialized protein molecules: These molecules certainly deserve the
2818 name ``biochemical nanomachines''. Recent progress in single-molecule
2819 experiments and corresponding simulations with supercomputers enable us
2820 to watch these ``nanomachines'' at work, revealing a host of astounding
2821 mechanisms. Examples are the fine-tuned movements of the binding pocket
2822 of a receptor protein locking into its ligand molecule and the forced
2823 unfolding of titin, which acts as a molecular shock absorber to protect
2824 muscle cells. At present, we are not capable of designing such high
2825 precision machines, but we are beginning to understand their working
2826 principles and to simulate and predict their function.",
2827 note = "Nice, general review of force spectroscopy to 2002, but not much
2833 title = "Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics",
2835 publisher = McGraw-Hill,
2836 address = "New York",
2837 note = "Thermal noise for SHOs, in Chapter 15, Sections 6 and 10.",
2838 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
2842 author = MRief #" and "# FOesterhelt #" and "# BHeymann #" and "# HEGaub,
2843 title = "Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy on Polysaccharides by Atomic
2851 pages = "1295--1297",
2853 doi = "10.1126/science.275.5304.1295",
2854 eprint = "http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/275/5304/1295.pdf",
2855 url = "http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/275/5304/1295",
2856 abstract = "Recent developments in piconewton instrumentation allow the
2857 manipulation of single molecules and measurements of intermolecular as
2858 well as intramolecular forces. Dextran filaments linked to a gold
2859 surface were probed with the atomic force microscope tip by vertical
2860 stretching. At low forces the deformation of dextran was found to be
2861 dominated by entropic forces and can be described by the Langevin
2862 function with a 6 angstrom Kuhn length. At elevated forces the strand
2863 elongation was governed by a twist of bond angles. At higher forces the
2864 dextran filaments underwent a distinct conformational change. The
2865 polymer stiffened and the segment elasticity was dominated by the
2866 bending of bond angles. The conformational change was found to be
2867 reversible and was corroborated by molecular dynamics calculations."
2871 author = MRief #" and "# MGautel #" and "# FOesterhelt #" and "# JMFernandez
2873 title = "Reversible Unfolding of Individual Titin Immunoglobulin Domains by
2881 pages = "1109--1112",
2882 doi = "10.1126/science.276.5315.1109",
2883 eprint = "http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/276/5315/1109.pdf",
2884 url = "http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/276/5315/1109",
2885 note = "Seminal paper for force spectroscopy on Titin. Cited by
2886 \citet{dietz04} (ref 9) as an example of how unfolding large proteins
2887 is easily interpreted (vs.\ confusing unfolding in bulk), but Titin is
2888 a rather simple example of that, because of its globular-chain
2890 project = "Energy Landscape Roughness"
2894 author = MRief #" and "# JMFernandez #" and "# HEGaub,
2895 title = "Elastically Coupled Two-Level Systems as a Model for Biopolymer
2902 pages = "4764--4767",
2905 doi = "10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.4764",
2906 eprint = "http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PRL/v81/i21/p4764_1",
2907 url = "http://prola.aps.org/abstract/PRL/v81/i21/p4764_1",
2908 note = "Original details on mechanical unfolding analysis via Monte Carlo
2912 @article { sarkar04,
2913 author = ASarkar #" and "# RBRobertson #" and "# JMFernandez,
2914 title = "{Simultaneous atomic force microscope and fluorescence
2915 measurements of protein unfolding using a calibrated evanescent wave}",
2920 pages = "12882--12886",
2921 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0403534101",
2922 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/101/35/12882.pdf",
2923 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/35/12882",
2924 abstract = "Fluorescence techniques for monitoring single-molecule dynamics
2925 in the vertical dimension currently do not exist. Here we use an atomic
2926 force microscope to calibrate the distance-dependent intensity decay of
2927 an evanescent wave. The measured evanescent wave transfer function was
2928 then used to convert the vertical motions of a fluorescent particle
2929 into displacement (SD = <1 nm). We demonstrate the use of the
2930 calibrated evanescent wave to resolve the 20.1 {+/-} 0.5-nm step
2931 increases in the length of the small protein ubiquitin during forced
2932 unfolding. The experiments that we report here make an important
2933 contribution to fluorescence microscopy by demonstrating the
2934 unambiguous optical tracking of a single molecule with a resolution
2935 comparable to that of an atomic force microscope."
2939 author = TSato #" and "# MEsaki #" and "# JMFernandez #" and "# TEndo,
2940 title = "{Comparison of the protein-unfolding pathways between
2941 mitochondrial protein import and atomic-force microscopy measurements}",
2946 pages = "17999--18004",
2947 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0504495102",
2948 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/50/17999.pdf",
2949 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/102/50/17999",
2950 abstract = "Many newly synthesized proteins have to become unfolded during
2951 translocation across biological membranes. We have analyzed the effects
2952 of various stabilization/destabilization mutations in the Ig-like
2953 module of the muscle protein titin upon its import from the N terminus
2954 or C terminus into mitochondria. The effects of mutations on the import
2955 of the titin module from the C terminus correlate well with those on
2956 forced mechanical unfolding in atomic-force microscopy (AFM)
2957 measurements. On the other hand, as long as turnover of the
2958 mitochondrial Hsp70 system is not rate-limiting for the import, import
2959 of the titin module from the N terminus is sensitive to mutations in
2960 the N-terminal region but not the ones in the C-terminal region that
2961 affect resistance to global unfolding in AFM experiments. We propose
2962 that the mitochondrial-import system can catalyze precursor-unfolding
2963 by reducing the stability of unfolding intermediates."
2966 @article { schlierf04,
2967 author = MSchlierf #" and "# HLi #" and "# JMFernandez,
2968 title = "{The unfolding kinetics of ubiquitin captured with single-molecule
2969 force-clamp techniques}",
2974 pages = "7299--7304",
2975 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0400033101",
2976 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/101/19/7299.pdf",
2977 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/19/7299",
2978 abstract = "We use single-molecule force spectroscopy to study the kinetics
2979 of unfolding of the small protein ubiquitin. Upon a step increase in
2980 the stretching force, a ubiquitin polyprotein extends in discrete steps
2981 of 20.3 {+/-} 0.9 nm marking each unfolding event. An average of the
2982 time course of these unfolding events was well described by a single
2983 exponential, which is a necessary condition for a memoryless Markovian
2984 process. Similar ensemble averages done at different forces showed that
2985 the unfolding rate was exponentially dependent on the stretching force.
2986 Stretching a ubiquitin polyprotein with a force that increased at a
2987 constant rate (force-ramp) directly measured the distribution of
2988 unfolding forces. This distribution was accurately reproduced by the
2989 simple kinetics of an all-or-none unfolding process. Our force-clamp
2990 experiments directly demonstrate that an ensemble average of ubiquitin
2991 unfolding events is well described by a two-state Markovian process
2992 that obeys the Arrhenius equation. However, at the single-molecule
2993 level, deviant behavior that is not well represented in the ensemble
2994 average is readily observed. Our experiments make an important addition
2995 to protein spectroscopy by demonstrating an unambiguous method of
2996 analysis of the kinetics of protein unfolding by a stretching force."
2999 @article { schlierf06,
3000 author = MSchlierf #" and "# MRief,
3001 title = "Single-molecule unfolding force distributions reveal a funnel-
3002 shaped energy landscape.",
3011 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.105.077982",
3012 url = "http://www.biophysj.org/cgi/content/abstract/90/4/L33",
3013 keywords = "Models, Molecular; Protein Folding; Proteins; Thermodynamics",
3014 abstract = "The protein folding process is described as diffusion on a
3015 high-dimensional energy landscape. Experimental data showing details of
3016 the underlying energy surface are essential to understanding folding.
3017 So far in single-molecule mechanical unfolding experiments a simplified
3018 model assuming a force-independent transition state has been used to
3019 extract such information. Here we show that this so-called Bell model,
3020 although fitting well to force velocity data, fails to reproduce full
3021 unfolding force distributions. We show that by applying Kramers'
3022 diffusion model, we were able to reconstruct a detailed funnel-like
3023 curvature of the underlying energy landscape and establish full
3024 agreement with the data. We demonstrate that obtaining spatially
3025 resolved details of the unfolding energy landscape from mechanical
3026 single-molecule protein unfolding experiments requires models that go
3027 beyond the Bell model.",
3028 note = "The inspiration behind my sawtooth simulation. Bell model fit to
3029 $f_{unfold}(v)$, but Kramers model fit to unfolding distribution for a
3030 given $v$. Eqn.~3 in the supplement is Evans-Ritchie 1999's
3031 Eqn.~2\cite{evans99}, but it is just ``[dying percent] * [surviving
3032 population] = [deaths]'' (TODO, check). $\nu \equiv k$ is the force
3033 /time-dependent off rate... (TODO) The Kramers' rate equation (second
3034 equation in the paper) is Hanggi Eq.~4.56b (page 275)\cite{hanggi90}.
3035 It is important to extract $k_0$ and $\Delta x$ using every available
3039 @article { schwaiger04,
3040 author = ISchwaiger #" and "# AKardinal #" and "# MSchleicher #" and "#
3041 AANoegel #" and "# MRief,
3042 title = "A mechanical unfolding intermediate in an actin-crosslinking
3052 doi = "10.1038/nsmb705",
3053 eprint = "http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v11/n1/pdf/nsmb705.pdf",
3054 url = "http://www.nature.com/nsmb/journal/v11/n1/full/nsmb705.html",
3055 keywords = "Actins; Animals; Contractile Proteins; Cross-Linking Reagents;
3056 Dictyostelium; Dimerization; Microfilament Proteins; Microscopy, Atomic
3057 Force; Mutagenesis, Site-Directed; Protein Denaturation; Protein
3058 Folding; Protein Structure, Tertiary; Protozoan Proteins",
3059 abstract = "Many F-actin crosslinking proteins consist of two actin-binding
3060 domains separated by a rod domain that can vary considerably in length
3061 and structure. In this study, we used single-molecule force
3062 spectroscopy to investigate the mechanics of the immunoglobulin (Ig)
3063 rod domains of filamin from Dictyostelium discoideum (ddFLN). We find
3064 that one of the six Ig domains unfolds at lower forces than do those of
3065 all other domains and exhibits a stable unfolding intermediate on its
3066 mechanical unfolding pathway. Amino acid inserts into various loops of
3067 this domain lead to contour length changes in the single-molecule
3068 unfolding pattern. These changes allowed us to map the stable core of
3069 approximately 60 amino acids that constitutes the unfolding
3070 intermediate. Fast refolding in combination with low unfolding forces
3071 suggest a potential in vivo role for this domain as a mechanically
3072 extensible element within the ddFLN rod.",
3073 note = "ddFLN unfolding with WLC params for sacrificial domains. Gives
3074 persistence length $p = 0.5\mbox{ nm}$ in ``high force regime'', $p =
3075 0.9\mbox{ nm}$ in ``low force regime'', with a transition at $F =
3077 project = "sawtooth simulation"
3080 @article { schwaiger05,
3081 author = ISchwaiger #" and "# MSchleicher #" and "# AANoegel #" and "#
3083 title = "The folding pathway of a fast-folding immunoglobulin domain
3084 revealed by single-molecule mechanical experiments.",
3092 doi = "10.1038/sj.embor.7400317",
3093 eprint = "http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v6/n1/pdf/7400317.pdf",
3094 url = "http://www.nature.com/embor/journal/v6/n1/index.html",
3095 keywords = "Animals; Contractile Proteins; Dictyostelium; Immunoglobulins;
3096 Kinetics; Microfilament Proteins; Models, Molecular; Protein Folding;
3097 Protein Structure, Tertiary",
3098 abstract = "The F-actin crosslinker filamin from Dictyostelium discoideum
3099 (ddFLN) has a rod domain consisting of six structurally similar
3100 immunoglobulin domains. When subjected to a stretching force, domain 4
3101 unfolds at a lower force than all the other domains in the chain.
3102 Moreover, this domain shows a stable intermediate along its mechanical
3103 unfolding pathway. We have developed a mechanical single-molecule
3104 analogue to a double-jump stopped-flow experiment to investigate the
3105 folding kinetics and pathway of this domain. We show that an obligatory
3106 and productive intermediate also occurs on the folding pathway of the
3107 domain. Identical mechanical properties suggest that the unfolding and
3108 refolding intermediates are closely related. The folding process can be
3109 divided into two consecutive steps: in the first step 60 C-terminal
3110 amino acids form an intermediate at the rate of 55 s(-1); and in the
3111 second step the remaining 40 amino acids are packed on this core at the
3112 rate of 179 s(-1). This division increases the overall folding rate of
3113 this domain by a factor of ten compared with all other homologous
3114 domains of ddFLN that lack the folding intermediate."
3117 @article { sharma07,
3118 author = DSharma #" and "# OPerisic #" and "# QPeng #" and "# YCao #" and
3119 "# CLam #" and "# HLu #" and "# HLi,
3120 title = "{Single-molecule force spectroscopy reveals a mechanically stable
3121 protein fold and the rational tuning of its mechanical stability}",
3126 pages = "9278--9283",
3127 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0700351104",
3128 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/22/9278.pdf",
3129 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/22/9278",
3130 abstract = "It is recognized that shear topology of two directly connected
3131 force-bearing terminal [beta]-strands is a common feature among the
3132 vast majority of mechanically stable proteins known so far. However,
3133 these proteins belong to only two distinct protein folds, Ig-like
3134 [beta] sandwich fold and [beta]-grasp fold, significantly hindering
3135 delineating molecular determinants of mechanical stability and rational
3136 tuning of mechanical properties. Here we combine single-molecule atomic
3137 force microscopy and steered molecular dynamics simulation to reveal
3138 that the de novo designed Top7 fold [Kuhlman B, Dantas G, Ireton GC,
3139 Varani G, Stoddard BL, Baker D (2003) Science 302:13641368] represents
3140 a mechanically stable protein fold that is distinct from Ig-like [beta]
3141 sandwich and [beta]-grasp folds. Although the two force-bearing [beta]
3142 strands of Top7 are not directly connected, Top7 displays significant
3143 mechanical stability, demonstrating that the direct connectivity of
3144 force-bearing [beta] strands in shear topology is not mandatory for
3145 mechanical stability. This finding broadens our understanding of the
3146 design of mechanically stable proteins and expands the protein fold
3147 space where mechanically stable proteins can be screened. Moreover, our
3148 results revealed a substructure-sliding mechanism for the mechanical
3149 unfolding of Top7 and the existence of two possible unfolding pathways
3150 with different height of energy barrier. Such insights enabled us to
3151 rationally tune the mechanical stability of Top7 by redesigning its
3152 mechanical unfolding pathway. Our study demonstrates that computational
3153 biology methods (including de novo design) offer great potential for
3154 designing proteins of defined topology to achieve significant and
3155 tunable mechanical properties in a rational and systematic fashion."
3159 author = YJSheng #" and "# SJiang #" and "# HKTsao,
3160 title = "Forced Kramers escape in single-molecule pulling experiments",
3170 doi = "10.1063/1.2046632",
3171 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?JCP/123/091102/1",
3172 keywords = "molecular biophysics; bonds (chemical); proteins",
3173 note = "Gives appropriate Einstein-S... relation for diffusion to damping",
3174 project = "sawtooth simulation"
3177 @article { shillcock98,
3178 author = JShillcock #" and "# USeifert,
3179 title = "Escape from a metastable well under a time-ramped force",
3185 pages = "7301--7304",
3188 doi = "10.1103/PhysRevE.57.7301",
3189 eprint = "http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PRE/v57/i6/p7301_1",
3190 url = "http://link.aps.org/abstract/PRE/v57/p7301",
3191 project = "sawtooth simulation"
3195 author = NDSocci #" and "# JNOnuchic #" and "# PGWolynes,
3196 title = "Diffusive dynamics of the reaction coordinate for protein folding
3203 pages = "5860-5868",
3205 doi = "10.1063/1.471317",
3206 eprint = "http://arxiv.org/pdf/cond-mat/9601091",
3207 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?JCP/104/5860/1",
3208 keywords = "PROTEINS; FOLDS; DIFFUSION; MONTE CARLO METHOD; SIMULATION;
3210 abstract = "The quantitative description of model protein folding kinetics
3211 using a diffusive collective reaction coordinate is examined. Direct
3212 folding kinetics, diffusional coefficients and free energy profiles are
3213 determined from Monte Carlo simulations of a 27-mer, 3 letter code
3214 lattice model, which corresponds roughly to a small helical protein.
3215 Analytic folding calculations, using simple diffusive rate theory,
3216 agree extremely well with the full simulation results. Folding in this
3217 system is best seen as a diffusive, funnel-like process.",
3218 note = "A nice introduction to some quantitative ramifications of the
3219 funnel energy landscape. There's also a bit of Kramers' theory and
3220 graph theory thrown in for good measure."
3223 @article { strunz99,
3224 author = TStrunz #" and "# KOroszlan #" and "# RSchafer #" and "#
3226 title = "{Dynamic force spectroscopy of single DNA molecules}",
3231 pages = "11277--11282",
3232 doi = "10.1073/pnas.96.20.11277",
3233 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/96/20/11277.pdf",
3234 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/96/20/11277"
3238 author = AMalec #" and "# CPickett #" and "# FHugosson #" and "# RLemmen,
3244 version = "version 0.9.4",
3245 url = "http://check.sourceforge.net",
3246 abstract = "Check is a unit testing framework for C. It features a simple
3247 interface for defining unit tests, putting little in the way of the
3248 developer. Tests are run in a separate address space, so Check can
3249 catch both assertion failures and code errors that cause segmentation
3250 faults or other signals. The output from unit tests can be used within
3251 source code editors and IDEs."
3261 version = "version 2.11b",
3262 url = "http://www.eecs.harvard.edu/nr/noweb/",
3263 abstract = "Noweb is a simple, extensible literate programming tool.",
3264 note = "Debian package by Federico Di Gregorio"
3268 author = GvanRossum #" and "# others,
3274 version = "version 2.5.1",
3275 url = "http://www.python.org/",
3276 abstract = "Python is a dynamic object-oriented programming language."
3280 author = EJones #" and "# TOliphant #" and "# PPeterson #" and "# others,
3282 title = "{SciPy}: Open source scientific tools for {Python}",
3284 url = "http://www.scipy.org/"
3288 author = ASzabo #" and "# KSchulten #" and "# ZSchulten,
3289 title = "First passage time approach to diffusion controlled reactions",
3295 pages = "4350-4357",
3297 doi = "10.1063/1.439715",
3298 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?JCP/72/4350/1",
3299 keywords = "DIFFUSION; CHEMICAL REACTIONS; CHEMICAL REACTION KINETICS;
3300 PROBABILITY; DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS"
3303 @article { talaga00,
3304 author = DSTalaga #" and "# WLLau #" and "# HRoder #" and "# JTang #" and
3305 "# YJia #" and "# WFDeGrado #" and "# RMHochstrasser,
3306 title = "{Dynamics and folding of single two-stranded coiled-coil peptides
3307 studied by fluorescent energy transfer confocal microscopy}",
3312 pages = "13021--13026",
3313 doi = "10.1073/pnas.97.24.13021",
3314 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/24/13021.pdf",
3315 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/24/13021"
3318 @article { thirumalai05,
3319 author = DThirumalai #" and "# CHyeon,
3320 title = "{RNA} and Protein Folding: Common Themes and Variations",
3321 affiliation = "Biophysics Program, and Department of Chemistry and
3322 Biochemistry, Institute for Physical Science and Technology, University
3323 of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742",
3325 journal = Biochemistry,
3328 pages = "4957--4970",
3331 "http://pubs3.acs.org/acs/journals/doilookup?in_doi=10.1021/bi047314+",
3332 abstract = "Visualizing the navigation of an ensemble of unfolded molecules
3333 through the bumpy energy landscape in search of the native state gives
3334 a pictorial view of biomolecular folding. This picture, when combined
3335 with concepts in polymer theory, provides a unified theory of RNA and
3336 protein folding. Just as for proteins, the major folding free energy
3337 barrier for RNA scales sublinearly with the number of nucleotides,
3338 which allows us to extract the elusive prefactor for RNA folding.
3339 Several folding scenarios can be anticipated by considering variations
3340 in the energy landscape that depend on sequence, native topology, and
3341 external conditions. RNA and protein folding mechanism can be described
3342 by the kinetic partitioning mechanism (KPM) according to which a
3343 fraction () of molecules reaches the native state directly, whereas the
3344 remaining fraction gets kinetically trapped in metastable
3345 conformations. For two-state folders 1. Molecular chaperones are
3346 recruited to assist protein folding whenever is small. We show that the
3347 iterative annealing mechanism, introduced to describe chaperonin-
3348 mediated folding, can be generalized to understand protein-assisted RNA
3349 folding. The major differences between the folding of proteins and RNA
3350 arise in the early stages of folding. For RNA, folding can only begin
3351 after the polyelectrolyte problem is solved, whereas protein collapse
3352 requires burial of hydrophobic residues. Cross-fertilization of ideas
3353 between the two fields should lead to an understanding of how RNA and
3354 proteins solve their folding problems.",
3355 note = "unfolding-refolding"
3358 @article { tlusty98,
3359 author = TTlusty #" and "# AMeller #" and "# RBar-Ziv,
3360 title = "Optical Gradient Forces of Strongly Localized Fields",
3366 pages = "1738--1741",
3369 doi = "10.1103/PhysRevLett.81.1738",
3370 eprint = "http://prola.aps.org/pdf/PRL/v81/i8/p1738_1",
3371 note = "also at \url{http://nanoscience.bu.edu/papers/p1738_1_Meller.pdf}.
3372 Cited by \cite{grossman05} for derivation of thermal response fn.
3373 However, I only see a referenced thermal energy when they list the
3374 likelyhood of a small partical (radius < $R_c$) escaping due to thermal
3375 energy, where $R_c$ is roughly $R_c \sim (k_B T / \alpha I_0)^(1/3)$,
3376 $\alpha$ is a dielectric scaling term, and $I_0$ is the maximum beam
3377 energy density. I imagine Grossman and Stout mixed up this reference.",
3378 project = "Cantilever Calibration"
3381 @book { vanKampen07,
3382 author = NGvanKampen,
3383 title = "Stochastic Processes in Physics and Chemistry",
3387 address = "Amsterdam",
3389 project = "sawtooth simulation"
3392 @article { walther07,
3393 author = KAWalther #" and "# FGrater #" and "# LDougan #" and "# CLBadilla
3394 #" and "# BJBerne #" and "# JMFernandez,
3395 title = "{Signatures of hydrophobic collapse in extended proteins captured
3396 with force spectroscopy}",
3401 pages = "7916--7921",
3402 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0702179104",
3403 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/19/7916.pdf",
3404 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/19/7916",
3405 abstract = "We unfold and extend single proteins at a high force and then
3406 linearly relax the force to probe their collapse mechanisms. We observe
3407 a large variability in the extent of their recoil. Although chain
3408 entropy makes a small contribution, we show that the observed
3409 variability results from hydrophobic interactions with randomly varying
3410 magnitude from protein to protein. This collapse mechanism is common to
3411 highly extended proteins, including nonfolding elastomeric proteins
3412 like PEVK from titin. Our observations explain the puzzling differences
3413 between the folding behavior of highly extended proteins, from those
3414 folding after chemical or thermal denaturation. Probing the collapse of
3415 highly extended proteins with force spectroscopy allows separation of
3416 the different driving forces in protein folding."
3419 @article { walton08,
3420 author = EBWalton #" and "# SLee #" and "# KJvanVliet,
3421 title = "Extending Bell's model: how force transducer stiffness alters
3422 measured unbinding forces and kinetics of molecular complexes.",
3429 pages = "2621--2630",
3431 doi = "10.1529/biophysj.107.114454",
3432 keywords = "Biotin; Computer Simulation; Elasticity; Kinetics;
3433 Mechanotransduction, Cellular; Models, Chemical; Models, Molecular;
3434 Molecular Motor Proteins; Motion; Streptavidin; Stress, Mechanical;
3436 abstract = "Forced unbinding of complementary macromolecules such as
3437 ligand-receptor complexes can reveal energetic and kinetic details
3438 governing physiological processes ranging from cellular adhesion to
3439 drug metabolism. Although molecular-level experiments have enabled
3440 sampling of individual ligand-receptor complex dissociation events,
3441 disparities in measured unbinding force F(R) among these methods lead
3442 to marked variation in inferred binding energetics and kinetics at
3443 equilibrium. These discrepancies are documented for even the ubiquitous
3444 ligand-receptor pair, biotin-streptavidin. We investigated these
3445 disparities and examined atomic-level unbinding trajectories via
3446 steered molecular dynamics simulations, as well as via molecular force
3447 spectroscopy experiments on biotin-streptavidin. In addition to the
3448 well-known loading rate dependence of F(R) predicted by Bell's model,
3449 we find that experimentally accessible parameters such as the effective
3450 stiffness of the force transducer k can significantly perturb the
3451 energy landscape and the apparent unbinding force of the complex for
3452 sufficiently stiff force transducers. Additionally, at least 20\%
3453 variation in unbinding force can be attributed to minute differences in
3454 initial atomic positions among energetically and structurally
3455 comparable complexes. For force transducers typical of molecular force
3456 spectroscopy experiments and atomistic simulations, this energy barrier
3457 perturbation results in extrapolated energetic and kinetic parameters
3458 of the complex that depend strongly on k. We present a model that
3459 explicitly includes the effect of k on apparent unbinding force of the
3460 ligand-receptor complex, and demonstrate that this correction enables
3461 prediction of unbinding distances and dissociation rates that are
3462 decoupled from the stiffness of actual or simulated molecular linkers.",
3463 note = "Some detailed estimates at U(x)."
3467 author = APWiita #" and "# SRKAinavarapu #" and "# HHHuang #" and "#
3469 title = "{From the Cover: Force-dependent chemical kinetics of disulfide
3470 bond reduction observed with single-molecule techniques}",
3475 pages = "7222--7227",
3476 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0511035103",
3477 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/19/7222.pdf",
3478 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/19/7222",
3479 abstract = "The mechanism by which mechanical force regulates the kinetics
3480 of a chemical reaction is unknown. Here, we use single-molecule force-
3481 clamp spectroscopy and protein engineering to study the effect of force
3482 on the kinetics of thiol/disulfide exchange. Reduction of disulfide
3483 bonds through the thiol/disulfide exchange chemical reaction is crucial
3484 in regulating protein function and is known to occur in mechanically
3485 stressed proteins. We apply a constant stretching force to single
3486 engineered disulfide bonds and measure their rate of reduction by DTT.
3487 Although the reduction rate is linearly dependent on the concentration
3488 of DTT, it is exponentially dependent on the applied force, increasing
3489 10-fold over a 300-pN range. This result predicts that the disulfide
3490 bond lengthens by 0.34 A at the transition state of the thiol/disulfide
3491 exchange reaction. Our work at the single bond level directly
3492 demonstrates that thiol/disulfide exchange in proteins is a force-
3493 dependent chemical reaction. Our findings suggest that mechanical force
3494 plays a role in disulfide reduction in vivo, a property that has never
3495 been explored by traditional biochemistry. Furthermore, our work also
3496 indicates that the kinetics of any chemical reaction that results in
3497 bond lengthening will be force-dependent."
3500 @article { wikipedia_cubic_function,
3502 key = "wikipedia_cubic_function",
3503 title = "Cubic function",
3507 journal = Wikipedia,
3508 url = "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cubic_equation"
3511 @article { wilcox05,
3512 author = AJWilcox #" and "# JChoy #" and "# CBustamante #" and "#
3514 title = "{Effect of protein structure on mitochondrial import}",
3519 pages = "15435--15440",
3520 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0507324102",
3521 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/102/43/15435.pdf",
3522 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/102/43/15435",
3523 abstract = "Most proteins that are to be imported into the mitochondrial
3524 matrix are synthesized as precursors, each composed of an N-terminal
3525 targeting sequence followed by a mature domain. Precursors are
3526 recognized through their targeting sequences by receptors at the
3527 mitochondrial surface and are then threaded through import channels
3528 into the matrix. Both the targeting sequence and the mature domain
3529 contribute to the efficiency with which proteins are imported into
3530 mitochondria. Precursors must be in an unfolded conformation during
3531 translocation. Mitochondria can unfold some proteins by changing their
3532 unfolding pathways. The effectiveness of this unfolding mechanism
3533 depends on the local structure of the mature domain adjacent to the
3534 targeting sequence. This local structure determines the extent to which
3535 the unfolding pathway can be changed and, therefore, the unfolding rate
3536 increased. Atomic force microscopy studies find that the local
3537 structures of proteins near their N and C termini also influence their
3538 resistance to mechanical unfolding. Thus, protein unfolding during
3539 import resembles mechanical unfolding, and the specificity of import is
3540 determined by the resistance of the mature domain to unfolding as well
3541 as by the properties of the targeting sequence."
3545 author = JWWu #" and "# WLHung #" and "# CHTsai,
3546 title = "Estimation of parameters of the {G}ompertz distribution using the
3547 least squares method.",
3556 doi = "10.1016/j.amc.2003.08.086",
3557 url = "http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/B6TY8-4B3NR1W-B/1/bbaa47878ada03c6ef8e681d03bb65d3",
3558 keywords = "Gompertz distribution; Least squares estimate; Maximum
3559 likelihood estimate; First failure-censored; Series system",
3560 abstract = "The Gompertz distribution has been used to describe human
3561 mortality and establish actuarial tables. Recently, this distribution
3562 has been again studied by some authors. The maximum likelihood
3563 estimates for the parameters of the Gompertz distribution has been
3564 discussed by Garg et al. [J. R. Statist. Soc. C 19 (1970) 152]. The
3565 purpose of this paper is to propose unweighted and weighted least
3566 squares estimates for parameters of the Gompertz distribution under the
3567 complete data and the first failure-censored data (series systems; see
3568 [J. Statist. Comput. Simulat. 52 (1995) 337]). A simulation study is
3569 carried out to compare the proposed estimators and the maximum
3570 likelihood estimators. Results of the simulation studies show that the
3571 performance of the weighted least squares estimators is acceptable."
3575 author = GYang #" and "# CCecconi #" and "# WABaase #" and "# IRVetter #"
3576 and "# WABreyer #" and "# JAHaack #" and "# BWMatthews #" and "#
3577 FWDahlquist #" and "# CBustamante,
3578 title = "{Solid-state synthesis and mechanical unfolding of polymers of T4
3585 doi = "10.1073/pnas.97.1.139",
3586 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/97/1/139.pdf",
3587 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/97/1/139"
3591 author = YYang #" and "# FCLin #" and "# GYang,
3592 title = "Temperature control device for single molecule measurements using
3593 the atomic force microscope",
3603 doi = "10.1063/1.2204580",
3604 url = "http://link.aip.org/link/?RSI/77/063701/1",
3605 keywords = "temperature control; atomic force microscopy; thermocouples;
3607 note = "Introduces our temperature control system",
3608 project = "Energy Landscape Roughness"
3612 author = WYu #" and "# JCLamb #" and "# FHan #" and "# JABirchler,
3613 title = "{Telomere-mediated chromosomal truncation in maize}",
3618 pages = "17331--17336",
3619 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0605750103",
3620 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/46/17331.pdf",
3621 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/46/17331",
3622 abstract = "Direct repeats of Arabidopsis telomeric sequence were
3623 constructed to test telomere-mediated chromosomal truncation in maize.
3624 Two constructs with 2.6 kb of telomeric sequence were used to transform
3625 maize immature embryos by Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. One
3626 hundred seventy-six transgenic lines were recovered in which 231
3627 transgene loci were revealed by a FISH analysis. To analyze chromosomal
3628 truncations that result in transgenes located near chromosomal termini,
3629 Southern hybridization analyses were performed. A pattern of smear in
3630 truncated lines was seen as compared with discrete bands for internal
3631 integrations, because telomeres in different cells are elongated
3632 differently by telomerase. When multiple restriction enzymes were used
3633 to map the transgene positions, the size of the smears shifted in
3634 accordance with the locations of restriction sites on the construct.
3635 This result demonstrated that the transgene was present at the end of
3636 the chromosome immediately before the integrated telomere sequence.
3637 Direct evidence for chromosomal truncation came from the results of
3638 FISH karyotyping, which revealed broken chromosomes with transgene
3639 signals at the ends. These results demonstrate that telomere-mediated
3640 chromosomal truncation operates in plant species. This technology will
3641 be useful for chromosomal engineering in maize as well as other plant
3646 author = JMZhao #" and "# HLee #" and "# RANome #" and "# SMajid #" and "#
3647 NFScherer #" and "# WDHoff,
3648 title = "{Single-molecule detection of structural changes during Per-Arnt-
3649 Sim (PAS) domain activation}",
3654 pages = "11561--11566",
3655 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0601567103",
3656 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/31/11561.pdf",
3657 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/31/11561",
3658 abstract = "The Per-Arnt-Sim (PAS) domain is a ubiquitous protein module
3659 with a common three-dimensional fold involved in a wide range of
3660 regulatory and sensory functions in all domains of life. The activation
3661 of these functions is thought to involve partial unfolding of N- or
3662 C-terminal helices attached to the PAS domain. Here we use atomic force
3663 microscopy to probe receptor activation in single molecules of
3664 photoactive yellow protein (PYP), a prototype of the PAS domain family.
3665 Mechanical unfolding of Cys-linked PYP multimers in the presence and
3666 absence of illumination reveals that, in contrast to previous studies,
3667 the PAS domain itself is extended by {approx}3 nm (at the 10-pN
3668 detection limit of the measurement) and destabilized by {approx}30% in
3669 the light-activated state of PYP. Comparative measurements and steered
3670 molecular dynamics simulations of two double-Cys PYP mutants that probe
3671 different regions of the PAS domain quantify the anisotropy in
3672 stability and changes in local structure, thereby demonstrating the
3673 partial unfolding of their PAS domain upon activation. These results
3674 establish a generally applicable single-molecule approach for mapping
3675 functional conformational changes to selected regions of a protein. In
3676 addition, the results have profound implications for the molecular
3677 mechanism of PAS domain activation and indicate that stimulus-induced
3678 partial protein unfolding can be used as a signaling mechanism."
3681 @article { zhuang06,
3682 author = WZhuang #" and "# DAbramavicius #" and "# SMukamel,
3683 title = "{Two-dimensional vibrational optical probes for peptide fast
3684 folding investigation}",
3689 pages = "18934--18938",
3690 doi = "10.1073/pnas.0606912103",
3691 eprint = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/103/50/18934.pdf",
3692 url = "http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/abstract/103/50/18934",
3693 abstract = "A simulation study shows that early protein folding events may
3694 be investigated by using a recently developed family of nonlinear
3695 infrared techniques that combine the high temporal and spatial
3696 resolution of multidimensional spectroscopy with the chirality-specific
3697 sensitivity of amide vibrations to structure. We demonstrate how the
3698 structural sensitivity of cross-peaks in two-dimensional correlation
3699 plots of chiral signals of an {alpha} helix and a [beta] hairpin may be
3700 used to clearly resolve structural and dynamical details undetectable
3701 by one-dimensional techniques (e.g. circular dichroism) and identify
3702 structures indistinguishable by NMR."
3705 @article { zinober02,
3706 author = RCZinober #" and "# DJBrockwell #" and "# GSBeddard #" and "#
3707 AWBlake #" and "# PDOlmsted #" and "# SERadford #" and "# DASmith,
3708 title = "Mechanically unfolding proteins: the effect of unfolding history
3709 and the supramolecular scaffold.",
3715 pages = "2759--2765",
3717 doi = "10.1110/ps.0224602",
3718 eprint = "http://www.proteinscience.org/cgi/reprint/11/12/2759.pdf",
3719 url = "http://www.proteinscience.org/cgi/content/abstract/11/12/2759",
3720 keywords = "Computer Simulation; Models, Molecular; Monte Carlo Method;
3721 Protein Folding; Protein Structure, Tertiary; Proteins",
3722 abstract = "The mechanical resistance of a folded domain in a polyprotein
3723 of five mutant I27 domains (C47S, C63S I27)(5)is shown to depend on the
3724 unfolding history of the protein. This observation can be understood on
3725 the basis of competition between two effects, that of the changing
3726 number of domains attempting to unfold, and the progressive increase in
3727 the compliance of the polyprotein as domains unfold. We present Monte
3728 Carlo simulations that show the effect and experimental data that
3729 verify these observations. The results are confirmed using an
3730 analytical model based on transition state theory. The model and
3731 simulations also predict that the mechanical resistance of a domain
3732 depends on the stiffness of the surrounding scaffold that holds the
3733 domain in vivo, and on the length of the unfolded domain. Together,
3734 these additional factors that influence the mechanical resistance of
3735 proteins have important consequences for our understanding of natural
3736 proteins that have evolved to withstand force.",
3738 project = "sawtooth simulation"